tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-40953890400528178442024-03-19T06:05:24.660-07:00Student's Problem SolutionAn educational website for various research and thesis purpose. Student's Problem Solutionhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10021512785718110303noreply@blogger.comBlogger15125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4095389040052817844.post-91153264769950244852019-06-07T23:46:00.000-07:002019-06-09T02:37:05.323-07:00Careers in Microbiology <div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 24.0000pt;">What is microbiology?</span><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 24.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">Microbiology</span></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> is the study of living organisms of </span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">microscopic</span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> size. </span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">It also be defined as the study of living organisms, a large diverse group of micro-organisms that exist as single cells or cell clusters; it also includes viruses, which are microscopic but not cellular.</span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">As you know, a </span><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">microbiologist</span></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> </span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">is a scientist who studies tiny organisms called micro-organisms. He or she might have a Bachelor’s, Master’s, or doctoral (PhD) degree in microbiology.</span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><br /></span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 18pt;">There are many career fields within the science of microbiology.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30.0000pt;">CAREERS IN MICROBIOLOGY</span><span style="font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><br /></span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">A person may specialize in the study of just one particular category of micro-organisms. A </span><b><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">bacteriologist</span></i></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> </span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">is a scientist who specializes in </span><b><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">bacteriology</span></i></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">; the study of the structure, functions, and activities of bacteria. </span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">Scientists specializing in the field of </span><b><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">phyco-logy</span></i></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> </span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">study the various types of algae and are called </span><b><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">phyco-logists</span></i></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">. </span><b><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">Proto-zoologists </span></i></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">explore the area of </span><b><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">proto-zoology</span></i></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">, the study of protozoaand their activities.</span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">Those who specialize in the study of fungi, or </span><b><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">mycology</span></i></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">, are called </span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">mycologists</span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">. </span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">Virology</span></i></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> </span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">encompasses the study of viruses and their effects on living cells of all types. </span><b><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">Virologists</span></i></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> </span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">and </span><b><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">cell-biologists</span></i></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> may become </span><b><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">genetic engineers</span></i></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> who transfer </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">genetic material </span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">(deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA) from one cell type to another. </span><b><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">Virologists</span></i></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> may also study prions and viroids, acellular infectious agents that are even smaller than viruses.</span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><br /></span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">Other career fields in </span><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">microbiology</span></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> pertain more to applied </span><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">microbiology</span></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> that is, how knowledge of </span><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">microbiology</span></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> can be applied to different aspects of </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">society</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">, </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">medicine</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">, and </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">industry</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">. Some of these career fields are briefly described</span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><br /></span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">below. </span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #666699; font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 18pt;">The scope of microbiology has broad, far-reaching effects on humans and their environment.</span></b><b><span style="color: #666699; font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 18pt;"><br /></span></b><b><span style="color: #666699; font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
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<b><span style="color: #ffc000; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;">Agricultural Microbiology</span></b><b><span style="color: #ffc000; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></h3>
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<span style="font-family: GillSans-ExtraBold; font-size: 18.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><br /></span><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">Agricultural</span></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> </span><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">microbiology</span></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> is an excellent career field for individuals with interests in </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">agriculture and microbiology</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">. </span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">Included in the field of </span><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">agricultural microbiology</span></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> are studies of the beneficial and harmful roles of microbes in soil formation and fertility; in carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur cycles; in diseases of plants; in the digestive processes of cows and other ruminants; and in the production of crops and foods. </span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">Many different viruses, bacteria, and fungi cause plant diseases. A food </span><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">microbiologist</span></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> is concerned with the </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">production, processing, storage, cooking, </span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">and</span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;"> serving of food</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> as well as the prevention of </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">food spoilage, food poisoning, and food toxicity.</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> </span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">A </span><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">dairy microbiologist</span></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> oversees the </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">grading</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">, </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">pasteurizing</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">, and </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">processing of milk </span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">and </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">cheeses</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> to prevent </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">contamination</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">, </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">spoilage</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">, and transmission of diseases from environmental, animal, and human sources. </span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #ff9900; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><br /></span><b><span class="15" style="color: #ffc000; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;">Biotechnology (Industrial Microbiology)</span></b><b><span class="15" style="color: #ffc000; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><br /></span><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">Biotechnology (industrial microbiology)</span></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">; the use of microorganisms in industry, is an excellent career field for individuals with interests in industry and microbiology. </span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">Many businesses and industries depend on the proper growth and maintenance of certain microbes to produce beer, wine, alcohol, and organic materials such as </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">enzymes</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">, </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">vitamins</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">, and </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">antibiotics</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">. </span><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">Industrial microbiologists</span></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> monitor and maintain the micro-organisms that are essential for these commercial enterprises. </span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">Applied microbiologists</span></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> conduct research aimed at producing new products and more effective </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">antibiotics.</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> </span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "impact"; font-size: 24.0000pt;"><br /></span><b><span class="15" style="color: #ffc000; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;">Environmental Microbiology and </span></b><b><span class="15" style="color: #ffc000; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;">Bio-remediation</span></b><b><span class="15" style="color: #ffc000; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;">: </span></b><b><span class="15" style="color: #ffc000; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: GillSans-ExtraBold; font-size: 18.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><br /></span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">The field of </span><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">Environmental-microbiology</span></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">, or </span><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">microbial ecology</span></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">, has become increasingly important in recent years because of heightened awareness and concern about dangers to the environment. </span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">Environmental microbiologists are concerned about water and sewage treatment. </span></i><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">The purification of waste water is partially accomplished by bacteria in the holding tanks of sewage disposal plants, where feces, garbage, and other organic materials are collected and reduced to harmless waste. </span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">Some micro-organisms, such as </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">the iron and sulfur-utilizing bacteria</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">, even break down metals and minerals. Bioremediation involves the use of micro-organisms to clean up after ourselves that is, to clean up landfills and industrial and toxic wastes. The beneficial activities of microbes affect every part of our environment, including </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">soil</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">, </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">water</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">, and </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">air</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">. </span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 20pt;">Environmental microbiology and bioremediation are excellent career fields for individuals with interests in ecology and microbiology.</span></b><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 20pt;"><br /></span></b><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 20pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #ffc000; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;">Medical and Clinical Microbiology</span></b></h3>
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<b><span style="font-family: GillSans-ExtraBold; font-size: 18pt;"><br /></span></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt; font-weight: normal;">Medical microbiology</span><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;"> is an excellent career field for individuals with interests in medicine and </span></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt; font-weight: normal;">microbiology</span><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">. </span></b><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></h3>
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<i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">The field of </span></i><b><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">medical microbiology</span></i></b><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;"> involves the study of pathogens, the diseases they cause, and the body’s defenses against disease</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">. </span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">This field is concerned with </span><u><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">epidemiology</span></u><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">, transmission of </span><u><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">pathogens</span></u><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">, </span><u><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">disease-prevention measures</span></u><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">, </span><u><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">aseptic techniques,</span></u><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> </span><u><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">treatment of infectious diseases</span></u><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">, </span><u><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">immunology</span></u><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">, and </span><u><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">the production of vaccines</span></u><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> to protect people and animals against infectious diseases. </span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">The complete or almost complete eradication of diseases like smallpox and polio, the safety of modern surgery, and the successful treatment of victims of infectious diseases are due to the many technological advances in this field. A branch of </span><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">medical microbiology</span></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">, called </span><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">clinical or diagnostic microbiology</span></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">, is concerned with the laboratory diagnosis of infectious diseases of humans. </span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 20pt;">This is an excellent career field for individuals with interests in laboratory sciences and microbiology.</span></b><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 20pt;"><br /></span></b><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 20pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #ffc000; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;">Microbial Genetics and Genetic Engineering</span></b></h3>
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<b><span style="color: #ff9900; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span></b><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">Microbial genetics involves the study of microbial DNA, chromosomes, plasmids, and genes. (Plasmids are small, circular molecules of extra-chromosomal DNA). </span></b><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></h3>
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<b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">Genetic engineering</span></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> involves the insertion of foreign genes into micro-organisms (usually into bacteria or yeasts). These foreign genes may come from any other organism (</span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">e.g., </span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">another micro-organism, an animal, or even a plant). </span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">The primary purpose of inserting a foreign gene into a micro-organism is to create a microbe that is capable of either producing a product of importance to us or accomplishing some task of importance to us. </span><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">Genetic engineering </span></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">has applications in </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">agricultural, environmental, industrial, and medical microbiology</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">.</span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">The intestinal bacterium </span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">E. coli </span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">has been used extensively in </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">microbial genetics, genetic engineering, and microbial physiology.</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> </span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: TimesTen-Roman; font-size: 20pt;">Microbial genetics and genetic engineering are excellent career fields for individuals with interests in genetics and microbiology.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: TimesTen-Roman; font-size: 20pt;"><br /></span></b><b><span style="font-family: TimesTen-Roman; font-size: 20pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #ffc000; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;">Microbial Physiology </span></b></h3>
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<b><span style="font-family: GillSans-ExtraBold; font-size: 18pt;"><br /></span></b><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">Research in </span></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt; font-weight: normal;">microbial physiology</span><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;"> has contributed immensely to our understanding of the structure and functions of microbial cells. </span></b><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></h3>
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<span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">What microbiologists learn about microbial cells quite often applies to cells in general. </span><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">Microbial physiology</span></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> is an excellent career field for individuals with interests in </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">biochemistry</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> and </span><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">microbiology</span></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">.</span><span style="font-family: TimesTen-Roman; font-size: 18.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><br /></span><span style="font-family: TimesTen-Roman; font-size: 18.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #ffc000; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;">Paleo-microbiology </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "impact"; font-size: 24pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></h3>
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<i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">The field of </span></i><b><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">paleo-microbiology</span></i></b><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;"> </span></i><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">involves the study of ancient microbes</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">. </span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">Although life is thought to have originated between 3.7 and 4 billion years ago, there are no </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">cellular fossils</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> available from that period. However, there are </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">molecular fossils</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">, molecules (usually lipids) that are known to be made only by organisms or, in some cases, only by particular organisms. Finding such </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">molecular fossils</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> in ancient rocks serves as evidence that life existed at that time. </span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: navy; font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 18.0000pt;">*The earliest </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 18pt;">molecular fossils</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> date back to between 3.7 and 4 billion years ago*. </span><span style="color: navy; font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">Some </span><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">Paleo-microbiologists</span></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> examine and study skeletons and mummified human remains to determine the infectious diseases that occurred in ancient civilizations. Such studies often involve the recovery of </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">microbial </span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">DNA from bone and </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">mummified tissue</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> samples. </span><u><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">For example</span></u><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">, finding </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">Mycobacterium tuberculosis</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> </span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">DNA in </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">Egyptian mummies</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> has revealed that </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">tuberculosis</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> existed as far back as 3000 BC. </span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">Paleo-microbiology</span></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> is an excellent career field for individuals with interests in </span><i><u><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">anthropology</span></u></i><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">, </span></i><i><u><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">archaeology</span></u></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">, and </span><b><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">microbiology</span></i></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">.</span><span style="font-family: TimesTen-Roman; font-size: 18.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><br /></span><span style="font-family: TimesTen-Roman; font-size: 18.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<b><span style="color: #ffc000; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;">Parasitology</span></b></h4>
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<i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt; font-weight: normal;">Parasitology</span></i><b><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">, </span></i></b><b><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">technically, any organism that lives on or in another living organism is called a </span></i></b><b><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">parasite</span></i></b><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">.</span></b><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></h3>
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<span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">It would seem then, that the term </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">parasite</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> would apply to all the micro-organisms of our </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">indigenous micro-flora</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> the viruses and bacteria that live on or in the human body. However, the field of </span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">parasitology </span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">involves only the following </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">three categories of </span></i><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">parasites</span></i><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">: parasitic protozoa, helminthes (parasitic worms), and arthropods (specifically, certain insects and arachnids).</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> </span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 20pt;">A </span></b><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 20pt;">parasito-logist </span></b><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 20pt;">studies these organisms and their life cycles in an attempt to discover the best ways to control and treat the diseases that they cause. </span></b><br />
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<b><span style="color: #ffc000; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;">Sanitary Microbiology</span></b><b><span style="color: #ffc000; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></h3>
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<b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">The field of sanitary </span></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt; font-weight: normal;">microbiology</span><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;"> includes </span></b><b><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">the processing</span></i></b><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;"> and </span></b><b><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">disposal of garbage and sewage wastes</span></i></b><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">, as well as the </span></b><b><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">purification</span></i></b><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;"> and </span></b><b><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">processing of water supplies</span></i></b><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;"> to ensure that no pathogens are carried to the consumer by drinking water. </span></b><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></h3>
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<b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">Sanitary microbiologists</span></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> also inspect </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">food processing installations</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> and </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">eating establishments</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> to ensure that proper food handling procedures are being enforced.</span><span style="font-family: TimesTen-Roman; font-size: 18.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><br /></span><span style="font-family: TimesTen-Roman; font-size: 18.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #ffc000; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;">Veterinary Microbiology </span></b><b><span style="color: #ffc000; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></h3>
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<span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">A wide variety of micro-organisms; including viruses, bacteria, fungi, and protozoa cause infectious diseases in animals. </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">Control of such diseases</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> is the concern of </span><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">veterinary microbiologists</span></b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">.</span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">The production of food from livestock</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;">, the </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">raising</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> of other </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">agriculturally important</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> animals, the care of pets, and the transmission of diseases from </span><i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">animals to humans</span></i><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> are areas of major importance in this field. Infectious diseases of humans that are acquired from </span><u><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">animal sources</span></u><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> are called </span><u><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">zoonoses </span></u><u><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">or </span></u><u><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18pt;">zoonotic</span></u><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> diseases.</span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"> </span><span style="color: navy; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 20pt;">Veterinary microbiology is an excellent career field for a person who is fond of animals and microbiology.</span></b><b><span style="color: navy; font-size: 20pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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Student's Problem Solutionhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10021512785718110303noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4095389040052817844.post-68388966387364225202019-06-07T23:41:00.000-07:002019-06-09T02:39:03.917-07:00Difference Between Exotoxin and Endotoxin<table border="1" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-insideh: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-insidev: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-padding-alt: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; mso-table-layout-alt: fixed; width: 566.8500pt;"><tbody>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12pt;">Serial; no.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12pt;">Property</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12pt;">Exotoxin</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12pt;">Endotoxin</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">1.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Bacterial source</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Mostly from gram positive bacteria</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Gram negative bacteria</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">2.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Relation to microorganism</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Metabolic product of growing cell</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Present in LPS of outer membrane of cell wall and released with destruction of cell or during cell division</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">3.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Protein content</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Proteins usually with two parts (A-B)</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Liquid portion of LPS of outer membrane</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">4.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Heat stability</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Unstable can usually be destroyed at 60-80 degree centigrade</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Stable can withstand autoclaving 121 degree centigrade for 1 hour</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">5.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Pharmacology</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Each has a highly characteristic mechanism of action</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">General such as fever, weakness aches and shock all produce the same effects</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">6.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Toxicity</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">High</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"> Low</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">7.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Fewer producing</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">No</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"> Yes</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">8</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Representative disease</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Gas gangrene, Tetanus botulism, Diphtheria, Scarlet fever</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Typhoid fever</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">9</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Lethal dose</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Small</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Considerable larger</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">10.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Example</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Streptococcus pyogens</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"> Salmonella typhus</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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Student's Problem Solutionhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10021512785718110303noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4095389040052817844.post-72602501317918073682019-06-07T23:39:00.001-07:002019-06-09T02:41:09.635-07:00Difference Between Bacteria and Fungi<div class="MsoNormal">
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<span style="color: #ff9900; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 26.0000pt;">What is meant by bacteria and fungi?</span><span style="color: #ff9900; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 26.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 22pt;">Bacteria: </span></b><b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 22pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Bacteria are unicellular free living organisms having</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><br /></span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">both DNA and RNA. They are capable of performing all</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><br /></span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">essential processes of life, e.g., growth, reproduction, and</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><br /></span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">metabolism.</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">They do not show any true branching except</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><br /></span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Actinomycetales, the higher bacteria. Bacteria lack chlorophyll unlike blue green algae, which contain chlorophyll.</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 22pt;">Fungi:</span></b><b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 22pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">The name “fungi” is derived from “</span><i><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">mykos</span></i><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">” meaning mushroom. The fungi are eukaryotic organisms and they differ from the bacteria, which are prokaryotic organisms, in many ways.</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">The natural habitats of most of the fungi which cause</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><br /></span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">systemic mycoses are in organic wastes or debris or in</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><br /></span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">soil enriched by organic wastes.</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="15" style="color: #231f20; font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 16pt;">Fungi differ from bacteria in a number of ways which is shown in the following table.</span><span style="font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 32pt;">Differences between Bacteria and Fungi: </span></b><b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 32pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></h2>
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<b><i><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 15pt;">Serial no. </span></i></b><b><i><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></b></div>
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<span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 15pt;">Basis for comparison</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 15pt;">Fungi</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 15pt;">Bacteria</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">1. </span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Cell type</span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Eukaryotic</span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Prokaryotic</span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">2. </span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Optimum pH</span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">3.8-5.6</span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">6.5-7.5</span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">3. </span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Optimum temperature</span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">22-30 degree centigrade.</span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">30-37 degree centigrade (Mesophiles).</span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">4.</span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Energy source</span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">They obtain their energy from the used and pre-existing sources present in environment. </span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Obtain their energy from sugars, proteins and fats.</span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">5. </span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Organelles</span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Organelles present</span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Cell lack organelles</span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">6. </span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Light requirement</span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">None</span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Some photosynthetic group requires light.</span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">7. </span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Carbon requirement</span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Organic</span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Inorganic and organic</span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">8. </span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Cell membrane</span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Present</span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Present below the cell wall.</span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">9.</span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Cell wall structural components</span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"> Chitin, cellulose or Hemi-cellulose.</span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Peptido-glycan</span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">10. </span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Sugar concentration in laboratory media</span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">4.5%</span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">0.5-1%</span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">11. </span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"> Host</span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">They grow their own</span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">They do not need a host to grow.</span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">12. </span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Reproduction</span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Asexual</span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"> Can be either sexually or asexually</span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">13. </span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Motility </span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">They are non motile</span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Move through flagellum</span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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Student's Problem Solutionhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10021512785718110303noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4095389040052817844.post-40943832556978687152019-06-07T23:37:00.001-07:002019-06-09T02:44:00.881-07:00Difference Between Prokaryotic Cell and Eukaryotic Cell <div class="MsoNormal">
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<b><span style="color: maroon; font-size: 20pt;">What is Prokaryotic Cell or Prokaryotes?</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-size: 20pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="color: maroon; font-size: 16pt;">Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms that are the earliest and most primitive forms of life in the earth. These cells are cells are which have not any true nucleus.</span><span style="color: maroon; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: maroon; font-size: 20pt;">What are Eukaryotic cells or Eukaryotes?</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-size: 20pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="color: maroon; font-size: 16pt;">Eukaryotic cells are cells that contain a nucleus and organelles and enclosed by a plasma membrane. Organisms that have Eukaryotic cells include Protozoa, fungi, plant and animals.</span><span style="color: maroon; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span style="color: #3366ff; font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 10pt;">Here, the differences between Prokaryotic cells and Eukaryotic cells are given below. </span></i><i><span style="color: #3366ff; font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<b><span style="color: blue; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 32pt;">Difference between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes</span></b><b><span style="color: blue; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 32pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></h2>
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<i><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12pt;">Serial no</span></i><i><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14pt;">.</span></i><i><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 14.0000pt;"> Structure </span><span style="font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 14.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 14.0000pt;"> Prokaryotic Cell</span><span style="font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 14.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 14.0000pt;"> Eukaryotic cells</span><span style="font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 14.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">1. </span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Nuclear membrane </span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Absent</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"> Present</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 40.8000pt;" valign="top" width="54"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">2.</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 114.0000pt;" valign="top" width="152"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Nucleolus</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 241.1500pt;" valign="top" width="321"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Absent</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 278.1500pt;" valign="top" width="370"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"> Present</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 40.8000pt;" valign="top" width="54"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">3.</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 114.0000pt;" valign="top" width="152"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Chromosome</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 241.1500pt;" valign="top" width="321"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">One, circular</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 278.1500pt;" valign="top" width="370"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">More than one, linear</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 40.8000pt;" valign="top" width="54"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">4.</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 114.0000pt;" valign="top" width="152"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Location</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 241.1500pt;" valign="top" width="321"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Free in cytoplasm attached to mesosomes</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 278.1500pt;" valign="top" width="370"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Contained in membrane bound structure</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 40.8000pt;" valign="top" width="54"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">5.</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 114.0000pt;" valign="top" width="152"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Replication</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 241.1500pt;" valign="top" width="321"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Binary fission</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 278.1500pt;" valign="top" width="370"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Mitotic fission</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 40.8000pt;" valign="top" width="54"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">6.</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 114.0000pt;" valign="top" width="152"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Extra-chromosomal DNA</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 241.1500pt;" valign="top" width="321"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Plasmid</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 278.1500pt;" valign="top" width="370"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Inside the mitochondria</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 40.8000pt;" valign="top" width="54"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">7.</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 114.0000pt;" valign="top" width="152"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Cytoplasm</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Cytoplasm organelles like mitochondria, golgi apparatus, and endoplasmic reticulum</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 241.1500pt;" valign="top" width="321"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"> Absent</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 278.1500pt;" valign="top" width="370"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"> Present</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 40.8000pt;" valign="top" width="54"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">8.</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 114.0000pt;" valign="top" width="152"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Cytoplasmic streaming</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 241.1500pt;" valign="top" width="321"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Absent</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 278.1500pt;" valign="top" width="370"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Present</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 40.8000pt;" valign="top" width="54"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">9.</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 114.0000pt;" valign="top" width="152"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Lysosomes</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 241.1500pt;" valign="top" width="321"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Absent</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 278.1500pt;" valign="top" width="370"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Present</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 40.8000pt;" valign="top" width="54"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">10</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 114.0000pt;" valign="top" width="152"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Ribosomes are protein production site</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 241.1500pt;" valign="top" width="321"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">70S (50S+30S), free in cytoplasm or bound to cell membrane.</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 278.1500pt;" valign="top" width="370"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">80S (60S+40S) attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum.</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">11. </span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Chemical composition</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Cell wall</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><br /></span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Present</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Absent, except for fungi that have chitinous cell wall.</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">12.</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Sterols</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Absent</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Present</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">13.</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Muramic acid</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Present</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 278.1500pt;" valign="top" width="370"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Absent</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">14.</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 114.0000pt;" valign="top" width="152"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Energy production site</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Electron transport chain located in cell membrane.</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 278.1500pt;" valign="top" width="370"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Within membrane bound area.</span></b><b><span style="color: maroon; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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Student's Problem Solutionhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10021512785718110303noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4095389040052817844.post-53250441226676855732019-06-07T23:35:00.001-07:002019-06-09T02:46:01.946-07:00Difference between Live Vaccine and Killed Vaccine<h2>
<b><span style="font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;">Difference between live and killed vaccines:</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></h2>
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<table border="1" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-insideh: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-insidev: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-padding-alt: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; mso-table-layout-alt: fixed; width: 576.3500pt;"><tbody>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">1. </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Factors</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Live vaccine</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Killed vaccine</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">2.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Definition</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">A vaccine prepared from living attenuated organisms or from viruses that have been attenuated but can still replicate the cells of the host organism.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Killed vaccines are suspension of bacteria or of viruses by disinfectants such as phenol or formaldehyde.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 25.6500pt;" valign="top" width="34"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">2.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Manufacturing</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 231.9500pt;" valign="top" width="309"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Easy to manufacture</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 234.5000pt;" valign="top" width="312"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">More complicated and expensive to manufacture.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">3.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"> Safety</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Can be dangerous to applicator if person injects himself, e.g. anthrax and contagious abortion (brucellous) vaccines.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 234.5000pt;" valign="top" width="312"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Safe</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">4.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Storage</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 231.9500pt;" valign="top" width="309"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Handling is critical</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 234.5000pt;" valign="top" width="312"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Less critical</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">5. </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Virulence</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 231.9500pt;" valign="top" width="309"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">There are always possibilities that the antigen can return to virulence and cause disease.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">The antigen is inactivated, thus cannot return to virulence (can cause illness).</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">6. </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Immunity </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 231.9500pt;" valign="top" width="309"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Immunity develops quickly and can</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"> have a longer duration (sometimes life long).</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 234.5000pt;" valign="top" width="312"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Immunity takes longer time to develop.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">7.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Response level</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Strong immune response.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Weak immune response.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">8. </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 84.2500pt;" valign="top" width="112"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Stability</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 231.9500pt;" valign="top" width="309"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Highly unstable</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 234.5000pt;" valign="top" width="312"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Quite stable</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">9. </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Booster dose requirement</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Needs no booster dose.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 234.5000pt;" valign="top" width="312"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"> Needs booster dose.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">10.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"> Stimulation of cells</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 231.9500pt;" valign="top" width="309"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">CD4+ and CD8+ stimulation</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 234.5000pt;" valign="top" width="312"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Mainly CD4+ stimulation.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">11. </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">About adjuvant</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Adjuvants are not critical.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 234.5000pt;" valign="top" width="312"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Adjuvants are critical.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">12.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Example</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Live vaccines are available for diseases such as Mumps, Rubella, Measles, Yellow fever, Varicella and influenza( administered intransally, BCG, Small pox etc.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;">Killed vaccines are available </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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Student's Problem Solutionhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10021512785718110303noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4095389040052817844.post-34344612170267643022019-06-07T23:34:00.001-07:002019-06-09T02:47:46.912-07:00Differences Between Light Microscope And Electron Microscope<h2 style="background: rgb(255,255,255); margin-bottom: 0.0000pt; margin-top: 0.0000pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<b><span style="color: #3a3a3a; font-family: "candara"; font-size: 25pt;">Why you want a </span></b><b><i><span style="color: #3a3a3a; font-family: "candara"; font-size: 25pt;">microscope</span></i></b><b><span style="color: #3a3a3a; font-family: "candara"; font-size: 25pt;"> and what is a </span></b><b><i><span style="color: #3a3a3a; font-family: "candara"; font-size: 25pt;">microscope</span></i></b><b><span style="color: #3a3a3a; font-family: "candara"; font-size: 25pt;"> used for.</span></b><b><span style="color: #3a3a3a; font-family: "candara"; font-size: 25pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></h2>
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<span style="color: #3a3a3a; font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13.0000pt;">The </span><b><span style="color: #3a3a3a; font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13pt;">microscope</span></b><span style="color: #3a3a3a; font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13.0000pt;"> is an optical instrument used to see the extremely small objects that are difficult to view by the naked eye. </span><span style="color: #3a3a3a; font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13pt;">When most people think of </span><b><span style="font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13pt;">microscopes</span></b><span style="font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13pt;">, biology and medicine probably come to mind. And the desire to learn about living things was most likely the main reason for the invention of the </span><b><span style="font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13pt;">microscope</span></b><span style="font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13pt;">. Today, however, </span><b><span style="font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13pt;">microscopes</span></b><span style="font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13pt;"> are used in many other fields.</span><span style="font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #3a3a3a; font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13.0000pt;">Their main use is to see the smaller organisms such as parasites and bacteria and then later used to analyze the organs that have been removed. With the advent of latest technology, these </span><b><span style="color: #3a3a3a; font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13pt;">microscopes</span></b><span style="color: #3a3a3a; font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13.0000pt;"> now come with digital cameras and other software solutions that allow the users to take a picture of organisms for analysis.</span><span style="color: #3a3a3a; font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13pt;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13pt;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13pt;">For example, geologists use </span><b><span style="font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13pt;">microscopes</span></b><span style="font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13pt;"> to examine rocks and minerals and materials scientists use them to study plastics and polymers. Engineers use microscopes to study surface properties and structures of metals.</span><span style="font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13pt;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13pt;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13pt;">Forensic science is the study of crime scenes for the purpose of presenting evidence in courts of law. Evidence such as dust, glass, body fluids, hair, inks, and micro-organisms can be analyzed using </span><b><span style="font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13pt;">microscopy</span></b><span style="font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13pt;">.</span><span style="font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13pt;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13pt;"><br /></span><b><span style="font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13pt;">Microscopes</span></b><span style="font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13pt;"> are also used in the service, manufacturing, and pharmaceutical industries to ensure the safety and quality of products. Scientists in these industries examine their products </span><b><span style="font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13pt;">microscopically</span></b><span style="font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13pt;"> to identify any flaws or contaminant</span><span style="color: #3a3a3a; font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #3a3a3a; font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13.0000pt;">These </span><b><span style="color: #3a3a3a; font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13pt;">microscopes</span></b><span style="color: #3a3a3a; font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13.0000pt;"> are also used by the doctors and pharmacologists who are involved in the research and development in order to study viruses and bacteria. Therefore, these </span><b><span style="color: #3a3a3a; font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13pt;">microscopes</span></b><span style="color: #3a3a3a; font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13.0000pt;"> played an ultimate role in the discovery, development and also the use of embryonic stem cells.</span><span style="color: #3a3a3a; font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #3a3a3a; font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13pt;">There are different types of </span><b><span style="color: #3a3a3a; font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13pt;">microscopes</span></b><span style="color: #3a3a3a; font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13pt;"> available that are mostly used in the electron beam or </span><b><u><span style="color: #3a3a3a; font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13pt;">Light-microscopy</span></u></b><span style="color: #3a3a3a; font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13pt;">. The major categories are broadly categorized as </span><b><u><span style="font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13pt;">Electron microscopes</span></u></b><span style="color: #3a3a3a; font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13pt;"> and </span><b><u><span style="color: #3a3a3a; font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13pt;">light microscopes</span></u></b><span style="color: #3a3a3a; font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13pt;">. These types have different features and used for different applications, so you just find the right one for your needs. </span><span style="color: #3a3a3a; font-family: "candara"; font-size: 13.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #222222; font-family: "candara"; font-size: 14pt;">An </span><b><span style="color: #222222; font-family: "candara"; font-size: 14pt;">electron microscope</span></b><span style="color: #222222; font-family: "candara"; font-size: 14pt;"> is a microscope that uses a beam of accelerated </span><span style="font-family: "candara"; font-size: 14pt;">electrons</span><span style="color: #222222; font-family: "candara"; font-size: 14pt;"> as a source of illumination.</span><span style="font-family: "candara"; font-size: 14.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "candara"; font-size: 14pt;">A </span><b><span style="font-family: "candara"; font-size: 14pt;">light </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "candara"; font-size: 14pt;">microscope</span></b><span style="font-family: "candara"; font-size: 14pt;"> (LM) is an instrument that uses visible light and magnifying lenses to examine small objects not visible to the naked eye or in finer detail than the naked eye allows.</span><span style="font-family: "candara"; font-size: 14pt;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: "candara"; font-size: 14pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "candara"; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "candara"; font-size: 14pt;">So it is important to know about the details differences between these microscopes. Let’s read about the differences between light and electron microscopes:</span><span style="font-family: "candara"; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "impact"; font-size: 32pt;">Difference between light</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "impact"; font-size: 32pt;"> microscope</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "impact"; font-size: 32pt;"> and electron microscope:</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "impact"; font-size: 32pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></h2>
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<i><span style="font-family: "franklin gothic medium"; font-size: 18pt;">Serial no.</span></i><i><span style="font-family: "franklin gothic medium"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "franklin gothic medium"; font-size: 18pt;">Point of difference</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "franklin gothic medium"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "times"; font-size: 18pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "franklin gothic medium"; font-size: 18pt;">Light microscope</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "franklin gothic medium"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "franklin gothic medium"; font-size: 18pt;">Electron microscope</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "franklin gothic medium"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">1.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">Definition</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">A </span></b><b><i><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">Light microscope</span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"> also known as optical microscope is an optical instrument used to make objects larger in order to view their details.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">An </span></b><b><i><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">Electron microscope</span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"> is an optical instrument that uses abeam of electron ns make objects larger for detailed view.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">3.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">Using system</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">Simple to use.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">Users require technical skills.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">4.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">Substance to view</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">Can view both live and dead specimens.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 284.8000pt;" valign="top" width="379"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">Views only dead specimens.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 55.0000pt;" valign="top" width="73"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">4.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 105.5000pt;" valign="top" width="140"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">Condition of surface</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 241.1500pt;" valign="top" width="321"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">Poor surface view.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 284.8000pt;" valign="top" width="379"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">Good surface view and internal details.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 55.0000pt;" valign="top" width="73"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">5.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 105.5000pt;" valign="top" width="140"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">Illumination</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 241.1500pt;" valign="top" width="321"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">Uses light rays to illuminate to specimens.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 284.8000pt;" valign="top" width="379"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">Uses a beam of electrons to view specimens.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 55.0000pt;" valign="top" width="73"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">6.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 105.5000pt;" valign="top" width="140"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">Lenses </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 241.1500pt;" valign="top" width="321"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">Lenses are made of glasses.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 284.8000pt;" valign="top" width="379"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">Lenses are made of electro-magnets.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 55.0000pt;" valign="top" width="73"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">7.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 105.5000pt;" valign="top" width="140"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">Maintenance </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 241.1500pt;" valign="top" width="321"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">Cheap to buy and has low maintenance cost.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 284.8000pt;" valign="top" width="379"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">Very expensive to buy and maintenance.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 55.0000pt;" valign="top" width="73"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">8.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 105.5000pt;" valign="top" width="140"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">Image type</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 241.1500pt;" valign="top" width="321"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">Image is colored.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 284.8000pt;" valign="top" width="379"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">Image is black and white.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 55.0000pt;" valign="top" width="73"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">9.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 105.5000pt;" valign="top" width="140"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">Resolving power</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 241.1500pt;" valign="top" width="321"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">It has low resolving power. </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 284.8000pt;" valign="top" width="379"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">It ahs high resolving power (0.0001micrometer), about 250 times higher than light microscope.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 55.0000pt;" valign="top" width="73"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">10.</span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 105.5000pt;" valign="top" width="140"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">Magnification power</span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 241.1500pt;" valign="top" width="321"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">It has magnification of 500x to 1500x.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 284.8000pt;" valign="top" width="379"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">It has magnification to 1.00, 000x to 3, 00,000x.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 55.0000pt;" valign="top" width="73"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">11.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 105.5000pt;" valign="top" width="140"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">Special requirement</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 241.1500pt;" valign="top" width="321"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">Vacuum, filament, cooling system and high voltage electricity are required.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 284.8000pt;" valign="top" width="379"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">Vacuum, filament, cooling system and high voltage electricity is very essential requirement.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 55.0000pt;" valign="top" width="73"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">12.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 105.5000pt;" valign="top" width="140"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">Identifying way of image</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 241.1500pt;" valign="top" width="321"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">Image is seen identified by eyes through ocular lenses.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 284.8000pt;" valign="top" width="379"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">Image is received in zinc sulfate fluorescent screen on photographic plate.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 55.0000pt;" valign="top" width="73"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">13.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 105.5000pt;" valign="top" width="140"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"> Risk</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 241.1500pt;" valign="top" width="321"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">Radiation is risk is absent.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 284.8000pt;" valign="top" width="379"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">There is risk of radiation leakage.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 55.0000pt;" valign="top" width="73"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">14.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 105.5000pt;" valign="top" width="140"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"> Specimen</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 241.1500pt;" valign="top" width="321"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">Specimen is stained with cooled dyes.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 284.8000pt;" valign="top" width="379"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">Specimen is coated with heavy metals in order to reflect electrons.</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</h2>
Student's Problem Solutionhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10021512785718110303noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4095389040052817844.post-86684050445388749492019-06-07T23:30:00.000-07:002019-06-09T02:56:01.622-07:00Difference between Innate and Adaptive Immunity<div class="MsoNormal">
<table border="1" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-insideh: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-insidev: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-padding-alt: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; mso-table-layout-alt: fixed; width: 707.3500pt;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 41.4000pt;" valign="top" width="55"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><i><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "times"; font-size: 10pt;">Serial no.</span></i></b><b><i><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "times"; font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 90.0000pt;" valign="top" width="120"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> Features </span><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 273.1000pt;" valign="top" width="364"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> Innate immunity</span><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 302.8500pt;" valign="top" width="403"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> Adaptive immunity</span><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 41.4000pt;" valign="top" width="55"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">1.</span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 90.0000pt;" valign="top" width="120"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: xx-small;"> </span><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Definition</span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 273.1000pt;" valign="top" width="364"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">The resistance to microbial infection that an individual passes by virtue of its genetic makeup. </span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 302.8500pt;" valign="top" width="403"><div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">The Resistance acquired by an individual during its life.</span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 41.4000pt;" valign="top" width="55"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">2. </span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 90.0000pt;" valign="top" width="120"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> Activity</span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 273.1000pt;" valign="top" width="364"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> Always present</span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 302.8500pt;" valign="top" width="403"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> Normally silent</span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 41.4000pt;" valign="top" width="55"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">3. </span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 90.0000pt;" valign="top" width="120"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> Specificity</span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 273.1000pt;" valign="top" width="364"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> Non-specific</span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 302.8500pt;" valign="top" width="403"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> Always specific</span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 41.4000pt;" valign="top" width="55"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">4. </span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 90.0000pt;" valign="top" width="120"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> Response </span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> time</span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 273.1000pt;" valign="top" width="364"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> Immune response in minutes</span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 302.8500pt;" valign="top" width="403"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> Takes days to generate response</span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 41.4000pt;" valign="top" width="55"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">5.</span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 90.0000pt;" valign="top" width="120"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> Diversity</span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 273.1000pt;" valign="top" width="364"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> Diversity is limited</span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 302.8500pt;" valign="top" width="403"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> Adaptive immunity is more varied</span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 41.4000pt;" valign="top" width="55"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">6. </span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 90.0000pt;" valign="top" width="120"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> Potency</span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 273.1000pt;" valign="top" width="364"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> It has a limited and lower potency.</span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 302.8500pt;" valign="top" width="403"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> It has highly potent immune response.</span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 41.4000pt;" valign="top" width="55"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">7. </span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 90.0000pt;" valign="top" width="120"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14pt;">Immunological</span></b><br />
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14pt;">memory</span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 273.1000pt;" valign="top" width="364"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> Absent</span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 8pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 8pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 302.8500pt;" valign="top" width="403"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> Present</span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 41.4000pt;" valign="top" width="55"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">8.</span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 90.0000pt;" valign="top" width="120"><div class="MsoNormal">
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<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> Heritance</span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 273.1000pt;" valign="top" width="364"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> Innate immunity is heritable. </span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 302.8500pt;" valign="top" width="403"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Passive acquired immunity is heritable from mother to neonates for a brief period after death.</span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 41.4000pt;" valign="top" width="55"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">9. </span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 90.0000pt;" valign="top" width="120"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> Origin</span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">It is present before the first exposure to microbial antigen.</span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 302.8500pt;" valign="top" width="403"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Develops during lifetime following the antigenic exposure.</span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 41.4000pt;" valign="top" width="55"><div class="MsoNormal">
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<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">10.</span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 90.0000pt;" valign="top" width="120"><div class="MsoNormal">
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<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span></b>
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Components</span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 273.1000pt;" valign="top" width="364"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">1. Anatomical /Physiological barrier like skin mucous membrane, temperature, pH, chemicals.</span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">2. Cells: Phagocytes (Macroccytes, 3.Mcrophages, Neutropils), NK. </span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">4.Complement</span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">5. Normal resident flora.</span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 302.8500pt;" valign="top" width="403"><div class="MsoNormal">
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<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">1.T cell</span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">2.B cell</span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">3.Classical component pathway</span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">4. Antigen presenting cells</span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">5. Cytokines etc.</span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">11.</span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 90.0000pt;" valign="top" width="120"><div class="MsoNormal">
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<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Classification</span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> Innate immunity is classified into specific and non specific immunity.</span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 302.8500pt;" valign="top" width="403"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Adaptive immunity is classified into active and passive immunity.</span></b><b><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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Student's Problem Solutionhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10021512785718110303noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4095389040052817844.post-77450674658233354692019-06-07T21:50:00.000-07:002019-06-09T02:59:52.223-07:00Active Immunity and Passive Immunity<div class="MsoNormal">
<table border="1" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-insideh: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-insidev: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-padding-alt: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; mso-table-layout-alt: fixed; width: 676.9500pt;"><tbody>
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<i><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12pt;">Serial </span></i><i><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "georgia"; font-size: 12pt;">No</span></i><span style="font-family: "times"; font-size: 12.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"> <span style="color: blue;"> </span></span></b><span style="color: blue;"><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;">Active immunity</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
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<span style="color: blue;"><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;">Passive immunity</span></b></span><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">1. </span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Active immunity is the permanent immunity produced by the antibodies of the host in response to a direct contact of an antigen.</span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Passive immunity is a short term immunity produced by the introduction of antibodies from outside of the host.</span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">2.</span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Antibody production is induced by the infection or by immunogens.</span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Antibodies are not produced, but directly transferred.</span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">3. </span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Active immunity involves both cell mediated and humoral immunity. </span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Passive immunity is due to the presence of ready-made antibodies.</span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">4. </span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Natural active immunity is by clinical infection. </span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Natural passive immunity is by the transfer of antibodies through placenta.</span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">5. </span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Artificial active immunity is vaccination</span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Artificial passive immunity is induced by infection of antibodies.</span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">6. </span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">A lag period is present</span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Lag period is absent.</span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">7. </span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Active immunity is only effective after the lag period.</span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Passive immunity is immediately mediated (since lag period is absent).</span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">8.</span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Active immunity is durable</span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Passive immunity is only transient.</span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">9. </span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Active immunity offers effective protection against microbes.</span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Passive immunity is less efficient in offering complete protection.</span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">10. </span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Immunological memory is present.</span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Immunological memory is absent. </span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">11.</span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">In active immunity, the subsequent doses with the antigen cause booster effect.</span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">In passive immunity, the subsequent doses are less effective due to immune elimination. </span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">12.</span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Negative phases may occur in active immunity.</span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 330.3500pt;" valign="top" width="440"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Negative phase is absent.</span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 42.6000pt;" valign="top" width="56"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: orange;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">13.</span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Active immunity is not applicable to immune deficient individuals.</span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Passive immunity is applicable to immune deficient individuals.</span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 42.6000pt;" valign="top" width="56"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">14.</span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">No side effects.</span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">It may cause reactions.</span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
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<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 42.6000pt;" valign="top" width="56"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: orange;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange; font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">15.</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: orange;"><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">An example of natural active immunity is fighting off a cold, allergic reaction may also consider.</span><span style="font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 330.3500pt;" valign="top" width="440"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: orange; font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Skin as a passive immunity, anti-venom is an example of passive immunity.</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "malgun gothic"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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Student's Problem Solutionhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10021512785718110303noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4095389040052817844.post-79223302969075291102019-06-07T21:48:00.001-07:002019-06-09T03:02:33.983-07:00Bacterial Growth Curve<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">If a suitable and a fixed volume of liquid medium is </span><i><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">inoculated</span></i><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> with a small bacterial </span><i><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">inoculum</span></i><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> or bacteria cells taken from a culture that has previously been grown to </span><i><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">saturation</span></i><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> and the number of viable cells per milli liter is determined </span><i><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">periodically</span></i><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> and </span><i><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">plotted</span></i><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">, a curve of growth is obtained.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">The phase of the bacterial growth curve is </span><i><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">reflection of the events</span></i><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> in a </span><i><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">population</span></i><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> of cells, not in *</span><i><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">individual*</span></i><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> cells.</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><b>The changes of slope in the graph indicate the transition from one phase of development to another.</b></span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<h2>
<b><span style="color: blue; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;">Phases of bacterial growth curve: </span></b><b><span style="color: blue; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></h2>
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<b><span style="color: #ffc000; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;">1. Lag phase: </span></b><b><span style="color: #ffc000; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></h4>
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<span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">After a liquid culture broth is inoculated, the</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">multiplication of bacteria does not start immediately. It takes</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><i><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">some time</span></i><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> to multiply. The </span><b><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">time</span></b><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> between </span><i><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">inoculation</span></i><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> and</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">beginning of </span><i><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">multiplication</span></i><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> is known as </span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 16pt;">lag phase.</span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">In this</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><b><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">phase</span></b><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">, the inoculated bacteria become </span><i><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">acclimatized</span></i><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> to the</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">environment, switch on </span><i><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">various enzymes</span></i><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">, and adjust to the</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">environmental temperature and atmospheric conditions.</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">During this </span><b><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">phase</span></b><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">, there is an increase in size of bacteria but no</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><i><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">appreciable increase</span></i><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> in number of bacterial cells. </span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">The cells are</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">active </span><i><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">metabolically</span></i><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">. The duration of the </span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 16pt;">lag phase</span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> varies with</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">the bacterial species, nature of culture medium, incubation temperature, etc. </span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">It may vary from 1 hour to several days.</span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #ffc000; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><br /></span><b><span class="16" style="color: #ffc000; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;">2. Log phase: </span></b><span class="18" style="color: #ffc000; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 24pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Regular growth of bacteria occurs in this </span><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">phase</span></b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> which is also of short duration since the nutrients present the medium are </span><i><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">utilized</span></i><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> by the bacteria and daughter cells. </span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Once </span><i><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">exhaustion of nutrients</span></i><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> occurs, slowing down of growth also takes place and bacterium passes onto stationary phase. The morphology of bacteria is best developed in this </span><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">phase</span></b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> and </span><i><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">organisms manifest</span></i><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> typical biochemical characters. </span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">This </span><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">phase</span></b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> will continue as long as cells have </span><i><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">adequate nutrients</span></i><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> and the environment is favorable. Hence, this </span><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">phase</span></b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> can be prolonged by continuous supply of fresh nutrients at a constant and </span><i><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">predefined rate</span></i><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">. </span><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Chemostat</span></b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> and </span><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">turbidostat </span></b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">are examples of techniques by which this phase can be prolonged, since in both continuous availability of the nutrients is assured.</span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><br /></span><b><span class="16" style="color: #ffc000; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;">3. Stationary phase: </span></b><span class="18" style="color: #ff9900; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 24pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">After </span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 16pt;">log phase</span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">, the bacterial growth almost</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">stops completely due to </span><i><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">lack of essential nutrients</span></i><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">, lack of </span><i><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">water</span></i><i><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">-</span></i><i><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">oxygen</span></i><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">, change in pH of the medium, etc. and accumulation of</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">their own toxic metabolic wastes. </span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: "verdana" , sans-serif; font-size: small;">Bacterial Growth Curve</span></b></td></tr>
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<i><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Death rate</span></i><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> of bacteria exceeds</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">the rate of </span><i><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">replication</span></i><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> of bacteria. Endospores start forming during this stage. Bacteria become *</span><i><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Gram variable*</span></i><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> and show </span><i><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">irregular</span></i><i><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span></i><i><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">staining</span></i><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">. </span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Many bacteria start producing exotoxins in this </span><b><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">phase</span></b><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">.</span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14pt;">Figure: </span></b><span style="color: #242021; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14pt;">Bacterial growth curve. The viable count shows lag, log, stationary and decline phases. In the total count, the phase of decline is not evident.</span><b><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"></span><b><span class="16" style="color: #ffc000; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;">4. Decline phase: </span></b><span class="18" style="color: #ff9900; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 24pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">During this </span><b><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">phase</span></b><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">, the bacterial population</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><br /></span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">declines due to death of cells. </span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">The </span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 16pt;">decline phase</span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> starts due to </span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><br /></span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">(</span><i><span class="17" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">a</span></i><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">) accumulation of toxic products and autolytic enzymes and </span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><br /></span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">(</span><i><span class="17" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">b</span></i><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">) exhaustion of nutrients. </span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Involution</span></i><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> forms are common in</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">this stage. </span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Growth rate during different phases of bacterial</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">growth curve is summarized in the following Table.</span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #ff9900; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Growth rate during different phases of bacterial growth curve. </span><span style="color: #ff9900; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">Phase</span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">Growth</span></b><b><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;">Lag phase</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;">Zero</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;">Log or exponential phase</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;">Constant</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;">Stationary phase</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;">Zero</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;">Decline phase</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;"> Negative </span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><br /></span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">*</span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">The </span><b><i><span class="19" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">continuous culture </span></i></b><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">is a method of culture useful for</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">industrial and research purpose.* </span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">[This is achieved by using a</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">special device for replenishing nutrients and removing bacterial population continuously so that bacteria growth is not</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">inhibited due to lack of nutrients or due to accumulation of</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><span class="15" style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">toxic bacterial metabolites.]</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;">[Short answers for examination</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;">]</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12pt;">Bacterial growth curve</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;">If a suitable and a fixed volume of liquid medium is inoculated with a small bacterial inoculum or bacteria cells taken from a culture that has previously been grown to saturation and the number of viable cells per milli liter is determined periodically and plotted, a curve of growth is obtained. The phase of the bacterial growth curve is reflection of the events in a population of cells, not in individual cells.</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;">The changes of slope in the graph indicate the transition from one phase of development to another. </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12pt;">Phases of bacterial growth curve: </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;">The bacterial growth curve can be divided into four major phases </span><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12pt;">(i) lag phase (ii) log phase (iii) stationary phase and (iv) decline or death phase.</span></b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;">These phases reflect the physiologic state of the organisms in the culture at that particular time.</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "impact"; font-size: 12.0000pt;">i) </span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "impact"; font-size: 12.0000pt;">The lag phase:</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;"> The lag phase represents a period during which cells, depleted of metabolites and enzymes as the result of unfavorable conditions that exist at the end of their previous culture history, adapt to their new environment. Enzymes and intermediates are formed and accumulate until they are present in concentrations that permit growth to resume. The duration of lag phase varies with the bacterial species, nature of the culture medium, incubation temperature etc. It may vary from 1hour to several days.</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "impact"; font-size: 12.0000pt;">ii) </span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "impact"; font-size: 12.0000pt;">The log phase:</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;"> The phase is characterized by rapid exponential cell growth (i.e. 1to2, 2 to 4, 4 to8 and so on. Following the lag phase, the cells start dividing and their numbers increase exponentially with time. If the logarithm of the viable count is plotted against time, a straight line will be obtained. The lag phase is the time when cells are the most active metabolically. During their log phase of growth, microorganisms are particularly sensitive to adverse conditions such as antibiotics and other microbial agent.</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b style="font-size: medium; text-align: start;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></b><span style="font-family: "impact"; font-size: small; text-align: start;">Figure: Bacterial growth curve</span></td></tr>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12pt;">Growth rate during different phases of bacterial growth curve. </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;">Phase</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;">Growth</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;">Lag phase</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;">Zero</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;">Log or exponential phase</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;">Constant</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;">Stationary phase</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;">Zero</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;">Decline phase</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;"> Negative </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "impact"; font-size: 12.0000pt;">iii) </span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "impact"; font-size: 12.0000pt;">Stationary phase:</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;"> After log phase, the bacterial growth almost stops due to essential nutrients, such as lack of water, oxygen, change in pH of the medium etc and accumulation of their own toxic metabolic wastes. Death rate of bacteria is equal to the formation rate of bacteria cells. The number of progeny cells formed is just enough to replace the number of cells die. The growth curve becomes horizontal. The viable remains stationary as an equilibrium exists between the dieing cells newly formed cells.</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "impact"; font-size: 12.0000pt;">iv) </span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "impact"; font-size: 12.0000pt;">Decline phase:</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;"> During this phase, the bacterial population declines due to death of cells. The decline phase starts due to an accumulation of toxic products and antolytic enzymes and exhaustion of nutrients. Finally after a variable period, all cells die and culture becomes sterile. When the total count is plotted, it parallels the viable count up to the stationary phase, but it continuous steadily without any phase of decline. Even the total count shows a phase of decline with antolytic enzymes</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;">The end]</span><span style="color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 12.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
Student's Problem Solutionhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10021512785718110303noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4095389040052817844.post-67105251464609612602019-06-07T21:47:00.000-07:002019-06-09T03:04:44.611-07:00A discussion on Rickettsia<h2>
<b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;">By Definition:</span></b><b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></h2>
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<b><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Rickettsiae</span></b><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> are a heterogeneous group of small obligately intercellular, gram negative, coccobacili and short bacilli; most of which are transmitted by a tick, mite, flea, or louse vector.</span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;">Properties:</span></b><b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></h2>
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<b><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Rickettsiae</span></b><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> are pleoplasmic cococbacili, appearing either as short rods (0.3 micrometer to micrometer0.6 ) or as cocci (0.3 micrometer in diameter. They have small genome composed of 1-1.5 million base pairs. These organisms, because of their small size were once thought to be virus. </span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Nevertheless, there organisms are bacteria because they show following characters.</span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">1. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">They have typical; gram negative cells</span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">2. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">They contain both DNA and RNA, enzymes for the kreb’s cycle and ribosomes for protein synthesis.</span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">3. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">They multiply by binary fission.</span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">4. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">They are susceptible to antibiotics.</span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;">Classification: </span></b><b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></h3>
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<b><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Rickettsiae</span></b><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> are a group of bacteria that photo-genetically occupy a position between bacteria and viruses. These pathogens are included in order Rickettsiales, tribe rickettsiae and family rickettsiae. </span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">The family of rickettsiae consists of four major groups namely Typhus fevers, Spotted fevers, Q-fever and Trench fever.</span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #ff9900; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 24.0000pt;">Growth: </span><span style="color: #ff9900; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 24.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Though </span><b><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">rickettsiae</span></b><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> do not grow in cell free media with the exception of Rochalimaea Quintana which can be grown on blood sugar, they readily grow in yolk sacs of embryonated eggs. Many strains of Rikettsiae also grow in cell culture, where the generation time is 8-10 hours at 34 degree centigrade. </span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">They also grow in continuous cell lines such as Hela, Hep 2, and Detroit 6 etc of developing chick embryo and also in many laboratory animals. Rickettsiae grow in different parts of the cell. Those of typhus groups are usually found in the cytoplasm and those of the spotted fever groups are usually found in the nucleus. </span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Their growth is enhanced in the presence of sulphonamides. </span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #ff9900; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 24.0000pt;">Importance: </span><span style="color: #ff9900; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 24.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Rickettsiae Helvetica</span></b><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">, a spotted fever </span><b><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Rickettsiae</span></b><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> and emerging pathogen with ixodes ricinus ticks as the main vector, is an agent of human disease and may cause febrile illness as well as Meningitis. In three parallel series the isolated standard type of R. Helvetica obtained from a PCR-positive I ricimus tick, was high passasged and propagated in a vero cell line. </span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">By using quantitive real time PCR, the generation time from inoculation to stationary phase was obtained degradation of R. Helvetica DNA during the 14 days studied. </span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Microscopy showed that the organisms invaded the host cells rapidly and primarily found free in the cytoplasm and only occasionally located in the nucleus. Four days after inoculation some of the host cells were broken and many indifferent stages of cytoplasmic organic decomposition were seen. </span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">However the R.Helvetica organisms did not show any morphologic alterations and the number of organisms was stable after the replication peak which may indicate the R.helvetica is adapted to growth in a vero-cell line that the phase of degradation occurs in later than the 24 days studied. </span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">The findings differ from what has been reported for other rickettsiae of the spotted fever group may be importance and virulence of R. Helvetica.</span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #ff9900; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 24.0000pt;">Vector and reservoir:</span><span style="color: #ff9900; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 24.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Ticks primarily dermacenter speices are the main vector in US.</span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Ticks are also agent reservoir, given that there are tick-totick mechanisms of transmission, allowing infections to all four life-cycle stages (eggs, larvae, nymphs and adults).</span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Usually only 1-5% of ticks are infected by Rickettsiae rickettsii, even in high incident areas.</span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">The main tick species are involved in transmission are</span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><i><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"># Dermacentor Variabillis</span></i><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> (American dog tick) – eastern, and far west US. Dogs and medium sized animals are preferred hosts.</span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><i><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"># Dermacenter andersoni</span></i><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> ( Rocky mountain wood tick) – western US states and south western Canada. Small Rodents and large mammals are preferred hosts.</span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><i><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> # Rhiphalus sanguineus</span></i><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> (brown dog tick) – Mexico, US (Arizona) and Europe. This is mainly recognized vector in US.</span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> # Amblyomma cajennense – South America</span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Other reservoirs include wild Rodents (e.g. capybaras) dogs, horses and donkeys.</span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;">Diseases: </span></b><b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></h3>
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<span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Rickettsial infections are characterized by fever, headache, malaise, prostration, suin rash and enlargement of the spleen and liver.</span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "kaiti"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">A. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Typhus group: </span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">It is divided by some other groups.</span><span style="font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">1. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Epedimeic Typus ( Rickettsia prowazekii) group</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">:</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">This disease is transmitted by the body louse in human long cycle. In epidemic typhus, systemic infection and prostration are severe, and fever lasts about 2 weeks. The disease is more severe and more often fatal in patients older than 40 years of age. During epidemics, the case fatality rate has been 6-30%</span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">2. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Endemic typhus or murine typhus (rickettsia typhi) group: </span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Infected flee feces rubbed into bite wound is he method of transmission. The clinical picture of epidemic typhus, but the disease is milder and is rarely fatal in elderly patients.</span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">3. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Spotted fever group:</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">The spotted fever resembles typhus clinically; unlike the rash in other Rickettisial diseases, the rash of the spotted fever group usually appears first on the extremities moves centripetally and involves the palmes and soles. </span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><br /></span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Some such as Brazilian spotted fever may produce severe infections; others such as Mediterrian fever are mild. The case of fatility rate varies greatly. In untreated Rocky Mountain spotted fever, it is usually much greater is elderly persons (up to 50%) than in young adults and childreans.</span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">4. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Traditional group:</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 6.0000pt;"> </span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Rickettsial pox (Rickettsiae akari) is a mild disease with a rash resembling that of varicella about 1 week before onset of fever, a frim red pupule appears at the site of the mite bite and develops into a deep seated vesicle that in turn forms a black eshcar. </span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 6.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "kaiti"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">B. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Scrub typhus group:</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">(Orientia tsutsugamushi) this disease resembles epidemic typhus clinically. One feature is the eschar, the punched-out ulcer covered with a blackend scab that indicates the location of the mite bite. Generalized lymphadenopathy and lymphocytocis are common; cardiac and cerebral involvements may severe.</span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;">Abstract of RIckettsiae :</span></b><b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></h3>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">1. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Ridkettsia are pleomorphic cocobacili that are obligate intercellular pathogens are similar to gram-negative bacteria but they do not stain with gram stain.</span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">2. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Riskettsia can be cultivated in cell culture lines and yolk sacs, but immune-histo-chemical or immune-fluorescent stains, serology or molecular methods are usually used for their detection in clinical material. </span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">3. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">The hallmark of infection with rickettsiais vasculitis.</span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">4. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Rickettsia can be divided into typhus, spotted fever, traditional and scurb typhus groups; vectors, clinical manifestations, and gepgraphic distributions vary by group.</span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">5. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Disease may be wild as in the case of Rickettsial pox severe as in rocky mountain spotted</span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
Student's Problem Solutionhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10021512785718110303noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4095389040052817844.post-55956389541873631142019-06-07T21:45:00.002-07:002019-06-09T03:09:09.355-07:00Small Discussion: Sterilization, Sterility test, Aseptic technique<h2>
<b><span style="color: #00b050; font-size: 24pt;">A short discussion on comparing advantages and disadvantages of dry-heat and moist-heat sterilization.</span></b><b><span style="color: #00b050; font-size: 24pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></h2>
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<b><span style="color: red; font-size: 20pt;">What is dry heat sterilization</span></b><b><span style="color: red; font-size: 20pt;"> ?</span></b><b><span style="color: red; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></h3>
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<span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Dry-heat sterilization is generally a less complicated process than steam or moist-heat sterilization; it is however relatively slow and requires higher temperatures or longer exposure times.</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: red; font-size: 20pt;">What is moist heat sterilization</span></b><b><span style="color: red; font-size: 20pt;"> ?</span></b><b><span style="color: red; font-size: 20pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></h3>
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<span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Whereas sterilization with steam under pressure, mainly at 121 degrees centigrade, 15 pounds of pressure for 20 min(pressure should be 1.2kg/cm) is known as moist-heat sterilization. Moist-heat sterilization is the steam sterilization in which temperature and pressures both works.</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "imprint mt shadow"; font-size: 18pt;">Now let’s see about the comparison of mechanisms and uses of the both sterilization process:</span></b><b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "imprint mt shadow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;">Mechanism of killing process by dry-heat sterilization:</span></b><b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">l </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Dry-heat kills the organisms by destructive oxidation of essential cell constituents</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">l </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Killing of moist resistant spores by dry heat requires a temperature of about 160 degree centigrade.</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">l </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Dry-heat is employed for glassware; syringes, metal instruments and paper wrapped goods, which are not spoiled by high temperatures.</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">l </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">It is also used for anhydrous fats, oils and powders that are impermeable to moisture.</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;">Mechanism of killing process by moist-heat sterilization:</span></b><b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">l </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Moist-heat kills the organisms by coagulation and denaturing their organisms and structural proteins.</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">l </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Sterilization by moist-heat of the moist heat resistant spores generally requires 121 degree centigrade for 15-30 minutes.</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">l </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Upon heat proteins release free –SH groups and form smaller peptide chains which in form next complexes different from the original protein molecules.</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">l </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Moist-heat is more effective than dry-heat.</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">l </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">This process is used for the sterilization of culture media and all materials through which steam can penetrate.</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">l </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Moist-heat can be done at lower temperatures in given time at a shorter duration at the same pressure.</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial rounded mt bold"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">As both sterilization processes have different methods and used in different purpose, the advantage and disadvantage is a big factor in the process of sterilization. So we must have a proper knowledge on them.</span><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial rounded mt bold"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;">Advantages of dry-heat sterilization:</span></b><b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">l </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Reliable, non-toxic and effective method of sterilization of heat stable articles.</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">l </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Low cost and easy to install.</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">l </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">As the instruments remains dry after sterilization, there are no chances of corrosion .</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">l </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">This is the only method of sterilizing oils and powders.</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;">Disadvantages of dry-heat sterilization:</span></b><b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">l </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">When Cotton wool and paper is used in this sterilization method, it may get slightly charred.</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">l </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Exposure to the higher temperature may be harmful to the instrument.</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">l </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Takes longer time compared to autoclave.</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;">Advantages of Moist-heat sterilization:</span></b><b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">l </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Requires low temperature:</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">l </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Less time to complete.</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">l </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Easy to control and monitor.</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">l </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Also low cost and non-toxic.</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">l </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Quicker than hot air oven. </span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;">Disadvantages of Moist-heat sterilization:</span></b><b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">l </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">The heat sensitive instruments cannot be sterilized.</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">l </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">After sterilization, the instruments remain wet, which may lead to rust.</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">l </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Chances of getting instrument damaged, due to repeated exposure.</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">l </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Trapped air may reduce efficacy and takes long time to cool.</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 24pt;">A short discussion on </span></b><b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 24pt;">aseptic technique </span></b><b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 24pt;">sterility test, its method and importance and interpretation results for the sterility test.</span></b><b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 24pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></h3>
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<span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Sterility test is defined as the testing which confirms that products are free from the presence of viable microorganism such as virus, bacteria, spores etc. It is very important for medical devices, pharmaceuticals, preparations, tissue materials and other materials that are claiming to be free from viable microorganisms.</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;">Methods:</span></b><b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">There are two types of sterility testing method in general:</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">l </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Membrane-filtration method and</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">l </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Direct-inoculation method.</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;">1. Membrane-filtration method:</span></b><b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Membrane filtration is the method of choice for the filterable pharmaceutical products. According to USP<71> in this sterility testing method products are flitted through 0.45 to 0.45 or 0.2 micron membrane filter.</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Five basic steps are involved in the use of the Membrane-filtration method:</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">l </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">The filter unit must be properly assemble and sterilized prior to use.</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">l </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">The contents of the prescribed number of units are transferred to the filter assembly under strict aseptic conditions.</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">l </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">The contents with the filtered with the aid of the vacuum or presence differential system.</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">l </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">One half of the membrane is placed in suitable volume (usually 100ml) of FTM and their other membrane, half is placed in equal volume of TSB.</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;">2. The Direct-inoculation method:</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">The direct-inoculation or direct-transfer method is the method of choice for the medical devices and non-filterable pharmaceutical products, which include solid dosage form, powders, ointments and creams.</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Basically the method involved three steps:</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">A. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Aseptically opening each sample container from recently sterilized batch of product.</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">B. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Using a sterile syringe or needle to withdraw the required volume of sample for both media from the container.</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">C. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Injecting the one half of the required volume of FTM and the other half volume of sample into a second test containing the required volume of TSB. </span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "imprint mt shadow"; font-size: 18pt;">Now let’s </span></b><b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "imprint mt shadow"; font-size: 18pt;">Reed</span></b><b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "imprint mt shadow"; font-size: 18pt;"> about what happens in the observation part, so we can realize the interpretation results of the sterility test:</span></b><b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "imprint mt shadow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">At intervals, during the incubation period and its conclusion e.g. the media for microscopic evidence of microbial growth, if no evidence of growth is found, the preparation being examined passes the test for sterility. If evidence of microbial growth is found, the containers should be reserved, unless it can be demonstrated by any other means that their presence is due to unrelated to the preparation being examined and</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">hence the test for the sterility, is invalid and may therefore be recommended, perform a retest. If no evidence of microbial growth is then found, the preparation being examined passes the test for sterility. If evidence of microbial growth is found, now the organisms should be isolated and identified. If</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">no evidence of the microbial growth is found in the second retest, the preparation being examined passes the test for sterility. If evidence of microbial growth is found in the second retest, thus fails the test for sterility.</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 23pt;">Aseptic technique:</span></b><b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 23pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></h4>
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<span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Aseptic technique means using practices and procedures to prevent contamination from pathogens. It is designed to provide a barrier between the microorganisms in the environment and the sterile cell culture to reduce the probability of contamination from these sources. Health-care workers, use antiseptic technique in surgery-rooms, clinics, out patient-care settings. It is used in pharmaceutical industries also.</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Aseptic technique is used in various purposes. Health-care professional commonly use aseptic technique when they are:</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">l </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Handling surgery equipment.</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">l </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Helping with a baby’s birth by vaginal delivery</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">l </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Handling dialysis catheters.</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">l </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Performing various surgical techniques.</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">The elements of aseptic technique are a sterile work area, good personal-hygiene, sterile reagent sterile handing etc.</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Student's Problem Solutionhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10021512785718110303noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4095389040052817844.post-87857871186359929442019-06-07T21:45:00.001-07:002019-06-09T03:13:46.523-07:00Microscope and Microscopy<b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;">*Microscopy</span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;"> is an important component of diagnostic microbiology.*</span><br />
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<b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Microscope</span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> is an optical instrument used to magnify minute objects or micro-organism which cannot be seen by naked eye.</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">In general, </span><b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Microscope</span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> is used in </span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">microbiology</span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> for two basic purposes:</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">· </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">The initial detection of microbes and </span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">· </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">The preliminary or definitive identification of microbes.</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #ff9900; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30.0000pt;">Microscopic methods: </span><span style="color: #ff9900; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #ff9900; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 10.0000pt;"> </span><span style="color: #ff9900; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 10.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt; font-style: italic;">1. </span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Light microscopy</span></i><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt; font-style: italic;">2. </span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Electron microscopy</span></i><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt; font-style: italic;">3. </span><!--[endif]--><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Scanning probe microscopy</span></i><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<b><span style="color: #7030a0; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 28pt;">1. Light microscopy</span></b><b><span style="color: #7030a0; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 28pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></h4>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">**A light </span><b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">microscope</span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> refers to the used of any kinds of </span><b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">microscope</span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> that uses natural or artificial transmitted light as the source of light to observe specimens. </span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">In light </span><b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">microscopy</span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">, light typically passes through a specimen and then through a series of magnifying lenses. Here </span><b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">microscopy</span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> resolving power is an important component.**</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #ff9900; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 20.0000pt;">Different types of Light Microscopy include </span><span style="color: #ff9900; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 20.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">· </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Bright-field Microscopy</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">· </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Dark-field Microscopy</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">· </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Dark-ground Microscopy</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">· </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Phase-contrast Microscopy</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">· </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Interference Microscopy</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "symbol"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">· </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Fluorescence Microscopy</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: navy; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 18.0000pt;">A. Bright-field Microscopy:</span><span style="color: navy; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Bright field </span><b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Microscopy</span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> always refers to as ordinary </span><b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Light Microscope</span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> is the most common form of </span><b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Light Microscopy</span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> that uses a compound </span><b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Light Microscope</span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">. </span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">A </span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">compound</span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> light </span><b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">microscope</span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> primarily consists of a </span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">compound lens system</span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> that contains a number of objective lens.</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">With this microscope, specimens are rendered visible</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><br /></span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">because of the differences in </span><b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">contrast </span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">between them and</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><br /></span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">the surrounding medium. </span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Many bacteria are difficult to see well because of their lack of contrast with the surrounding medium</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">It may be used to </span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">examine either wel-films</span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> or </span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">“hanging drop”</span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> for demonstration of the motility of the flagellated bacteria and protozoa. It is also useful for demonstration of the </span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">structural details</span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">.</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: navy; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 18.0000pt;">B. Dark-ground (Dark-field) Microscopy: </span><span style="color: navy; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">The</span><b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> Dark</span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">ground microscopy</span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> uses of </span><b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Dark Ground Microscope</span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">, a special type of </span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">compound</span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Light Microscope</span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">. </span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">This </span><b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Microscope</span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> uses </span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">reflected light</span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> instead of </span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">transmitted light</span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> used in the ordinary </span><b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Light Microscope</span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">. It prevents light from falling directly on the objective lens with the result that the micro-organisms appear brightly </span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">stained against a dark background</span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">. It is </span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">useful for very thin bacteria</span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> (such as spirochetes) not visible under ordinary illumination, since the reflection of </span><b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Light Microscope</span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> makes them appear larges. </span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh6malHqAeC18_qgjUaD6oEsKsFh8iis1dOH45iFsl-iBJg0fmVYTPbFb9j2CDbLJk2n75148WLUwuIUd4SaHs6uhtmpTc_873hHWPtFlhyAeZzY3WvUfnMuN8cdLctQK_qepr9ThdXVt0/s1600/nc13610Gn-lgn.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="800" data-original-width="789" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh6malHqAeC18_qgjUaD6oEsKsFh8iis1dOH45iFsl-iBJg0fmVYTPbFb9j2CDbLJk2n75148WLUwuIUd4SaHs6uhtmpTc_873hHWPtFlhyAeZzY3WvUfnMuN8cdLctQK_qepr9ThdXVt0/s400/nc13610Gn-lgn.jpg" width="393" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">A Compound Light Microscope</span></b></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">It is also helpful for </span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">demonstration of motility</span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> of flagellated bacteria and protozoa.</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">This technique of </span><b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Microscopy</span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> is particularly valuable for observing organisms such as </span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Treponema pallidum, </span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">a spirochete which is less than 0.2 mm in diameter and therefore cannot be observed with direct light.</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: navy; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 18.0000pt;">C. Phase-contrast Microscopy: </span><span style="color: navy; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">The </span><b><span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Phase-contrast Microscope</span></b><span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> was developed to improve contrast differences between cells and the surrounding medium,</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">making it possible to see living cells without staining them. </span><b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Phase</span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">-</span><b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">contrast Microscopy</span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> is based on the </span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">wave nature</span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> of light rays, and the fact that the light rays can “</span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">in phase”</span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> (their peaks and valleys match) or “</span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">out of the phase”</span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">.</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Phase-contrast Microscopy</span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> improves the </span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">contrast</span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">; the internal structures of a cell become </span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">more sharply</span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> defined and </span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">make evident</span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> the structure with in cells that differ in thickness or </span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">refractive index.</span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> It is used for </span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">studying unstained</span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> cells, detailed examination of </span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">internal structures</span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> in living micro-organisms. </span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">*It is used to study Amoeba and Trichomons.</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<span style="color: navy; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 18.0000pt;">D. Fluorescent microscopy: </span><span style="color: navy; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Fluorescent</span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> is based on the principle that the specimens stained with “</span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">fluorescent dye”</span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> when exposed to ultraviolet light result in </span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">emission</span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> of longer wavelength of light. </span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Fluorescence</span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> needs a “</span><b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Fluorescence Microscope</span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">” fitted with an ultraviolet source. </span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">It is used for “</span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">direct demonstration”</span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> of antigen of a pathogen in clinical specimens by direct “</span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">fluorescent antibody test”</span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> and also used for </span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">estimation</span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> of antibodies in the serum by direct </span><b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">fluorescent</span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> antibody test</span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">.</span></i><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<b><span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Fluorescence Microscopy</span></b><span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> is widely</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">used in clinical diagnostic microbiology. For example, the </span><i><span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">fluorochrome auramine</span></i><span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> O, which glows yellow when exposed</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">to ultraviolet light, is strongly absorbed by </span><i><span class="15" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Mycobacterium</span></i><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span></i><i><span class="15" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">tuberculosis</span></i><span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">, the bacterium that causes tuberculosis. When</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">the dye is applied to a specimen suspected of containing</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><i><span class="15" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">M tuberculosis </span></i><span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">and exposed to ultraviolet light, the bacterium</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">can be detected by the appearance of bright yellow organisms</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">against a dark background.</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: navy; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 18.0000pt;">E. Interference Microscopy/Confocal Microscopy: </span><span style="color: navy; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 18.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">This is another specialized application of </span><b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Light Microscopy</span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> used for demonstrating cell organelles. </span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">*[In </span><b><span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Confocal Scanning Laser</span></b><b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span></b><b><span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Microscopy</span></b><span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">, a laser beam is bounced off a mirror that directs the</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><br /></span><span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">beam through a scanning device. Ten the laser beam is directed</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><br /></span><span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">through a pinhole that precisely adjusts the plane of focus of the</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><br /></span><span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">beam to a given vertical layer within the specimen. </span><span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">By precisely</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">illuminating only a single plane of the specimen, illumination</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><br /></span><span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">intensity drops off rapidly above and below the plane of focus,</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><br /></span><span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">and stray light from other planes of focus are minimized. </span><span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Thus,</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">in a relatively thick specimen, various layers can be observed by</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><br /></span><span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">adjusting the plane of focus of the laser beam.]*</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Its main use is:</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">1. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">To obtain </span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">three dimensional</span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> images of entire cell; </span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">by monitoring the distributions and concentrations of substances such as ATP and calcium ions.</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">2. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">To evaluate </span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">cellular physiology.</span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Thus, images obtained from different layers can be stored and then digitally overlaid to reconstruct a</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">three-dimensional image of the entire specimen</span><span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">..</span><b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 32pt;">3. Electron Microscopy</span></b><b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 32pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></h4>
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<span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">The high resolving power of </span><b><span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Electron Microscopes </span></b><span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">has</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><br /></span><span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">enabled scientists to observe the detailed structures of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Electron microscopy</span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> utilizes </span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">a beam of electrons</span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> instead of a bean of light used in the </span><b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Light Microscope</span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">. Rather than using glass lenses, visible light and the eye to observe the specimen, the </span><b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Electron Microscope</span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> uses *</span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">electromagnetic lenses*</span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">, and a </span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">fluorescent</span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> screen to produce the </span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">magnified image</span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">. </span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">There are mainly two types of </span><b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Electron Microscope</span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> in general use:</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: navy; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">1. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: navy; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM):</span><span style="color: navy; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">In </span><b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Transmission Electron Microscope</span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">, electrons like light pass directly through the specimen that has been prepared by thin </span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">sectioning freeze fracturing or freeze etching</span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">. </span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">*It is used to observe fine details of cell structure.*</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: navy; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">2. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: navy; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Scanning Electron Microscope: </span><span style="color: navy; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">The </span><b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Scanning Electron Microscope</span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> scans a beam of electrons back and </span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">forth over the surface</span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> of the specimen; producing </span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">three dimensional</span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> views of the surface of whole micro-organisms.</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #ff9900; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 24.0000pt;">3. Scanning Probe Microscopy</span><span style="color: #ff9900; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 24.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Another</span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span></i><b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Electron Microscopy</span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> is </span><b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Scanning Probe Microscopy</span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">. It is also very useful and popular instrument, in the latest modern research projects and thesis.</span><b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">It uses the measure surface features by </span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">moving a sharp probe</span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> over the object’s surface.</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Scanning probe Microscopes</span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> maps the bumps and the valleys of a surface on an atomic scale. </span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Their resolving power is much greater than the </span><b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Electron Microscope</span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> and the samples do </span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">not need special preparation</span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> as they do for </span><b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Electron Microscopy.</span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Among the new scanned probe </span><b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Microscopes</span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> are:</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: navy; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">1. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: navy; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM):</span><span style="color: navy; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">They are used to provide </span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">indirectly detailed views</span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> of molecules such as DNA.</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: navy; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">2. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: navy; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Atomic Force Microscope (AFM):</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">They produce </span><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">three-dimensional images</span></i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> of the surface of a molecule. </span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">*Interactions between proteins of the bacterium </span><i><span class="15" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Escherichia coli </span></i><span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">can</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><br /></span><span class="16" style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">be studied with the atomic force microscope.</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "lucida console"; font-size: 10pt;">Now let’s read about the differences between </span></i><i><u><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "lucida console"; font-size: 10pt;">Light Microscope</span></u></i><i><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "lucida console"; font-size: 10pt;"> and </span></i><i><u><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "lucida console"; font-size: 10pt;">Electron Microscope;</span></u></i><i><u><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "lucida console"; font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></u></i></div>
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<b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;">Difference between Light Microscope and Electron Microscope</span></b><b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></h3>
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<i><span style="color: #003366; font-size: 14pt;">Serial no.</span></i><i><span style="color: #003366; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 12.0000pt;">Point of difference</span><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 12.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Light microscope</span><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Electron microscope</span><span style="color: #003366; font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">1.</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15.0000pt;">Definition</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">A </span><b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Light Microscope</span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> also known as optical microscope is an optical instrument used to make objects larger in order to view their details.</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">An </span><b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Electron Microscope</span></b><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> is an optical instrument that uses abeam of electron ns make objects larger for detailed view.</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">2.</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15.0000pt;">Using system</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Simple to use</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Users require technical skills.</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">3.</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15.0000pt;">Substance to view</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Can view both live and dead specimens</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Views only dead specimens.</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">4.</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15.0000pt;">Condition of surface</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Poor surface view</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Good surface view and internal details</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">5.</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15.0000pt;">Illumination</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Uses light rays to illuminate to specimens</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Uses a beam of electrons to view specimens</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">6.</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15.0000pt;">Lenses </span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Lenses are made of glasses </span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Lenses are made of electro-magnets</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">7.</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15.0000pt;">Maintenance </span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Cheap to buy and has low maintenance cost</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Very expensive to buy and maintenance</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">8.</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 81.0000pt;" valign="top" width="108"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15.0000pt;">Image type</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 162.0000pt;" valign="top" width="216"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Image is colored</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 149.4000pt;" valign="top" width="199"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Image is black and white.</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 50.4000pt;" valign="top" width="67"><div class="MsoNormal">
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">9.</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 81.0000pt;" valign="top" width="108"><div class="MsoNormal">
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15.0000pt;">Resolving power</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 162.0000pt;" valign="top" width="216"><div class="MsoNormal">
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">It has low resolving power micrometer to 0.3micrometrer)</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 149.4000pt;" valign="top" width="199"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">It ahs high resolving power (0.0001micrometer), about 250 times higher than light microscope.</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 50.4000pt;" valign="top" width="67"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">10.</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 81.0000pt;" valign="top" width="108"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15.0000pt;">Magnification power</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 162.0000pt;" valign="top" width="216"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">It has magnification of 500x to 1500x</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 149.4000pt;" valign="top" width="199"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">It has magnification to 1.00, 000x to 3, 00,000x.</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 50.4000pt;" valign="top" width="67"><div class="MsoNormal">
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">11.</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 81.0000pt;" valign="top" width="108"><div class="MsoNormal">
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15.0000pt;">Special requirement</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 162.0000pt;" valign="top" width="216"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Vacuum, filament, cooling system and high voltage electricity are required</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 149.4000pt;" valign="top" width="199"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Vacuum, filament, cooling system and high voltage electricity is very essential requirement.</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 50.4000pt;" valign="top" width="67"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">12.</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 81.0000pt;" valign="top" width="108"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15.0000pt;">Identifying way of image</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 162.0000pt;" valign="top" width="216"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Image is seen identified by eyes through ocular lenses.</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 149.4000pt;" valign="top" width="199"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Image is received in zinc sulfate fluorescent screen on photographic plate</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 50.4000pt;" valign="top" width="67"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">13.</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 81.0000pt;" valign="top" width="108"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15.0000pt;">Risk</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 162.0000pt;" valign="top" width="216"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Radiation is risk is absent</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 149.4000pt;" valign="top" width="199"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">There is risk of radiation leakage.</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 50.4000pt;" valign="top" width="67"><div class="MsoNormal">
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">14.</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 81.0000pt;" valign="top" width="108"><div class="MsoNormal">
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15.0000pt;">Specimen</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 15.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Specimen is stained with cooled dyes</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 149.4000pt;" valign="top" width="199"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Specimen is coated with heavy metals in order to reflect electrons.</span><span style="color: #003300; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Student's Problem Solutionhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10021512785718110303noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4095389040052817844.post-47583295789256740872019-06-07T21:43:00.000-07:002019-06-09T03:15:20.428-07:00A short discussion on Antigen and Vaccine<h2>
<b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 36pt;">Vaccine</span></b><b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 36pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></h2>
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<span style="color: #8064a2; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">A preparation of inactivated or attenuated microorganisms or toxoids to include artificially acquired active immunity.</span><span style="color: #8064a2; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;">Types of vaccine: </span></b><b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #8064a2; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">1. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #8064a2; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Live vaccine</span><span style="color: #8064a2; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #8064a2; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">2. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #8064a2; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">killed vaccine</span><span style="color: #8064a2; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #8064a2; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">3. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #8064a2; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Toxoid vaccine</span><span style="color: #8064a2; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #8064a2; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">4. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #8064a2; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Bacterial cell component vaccine</span><span style="color: #8064a2; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #8064a2; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">5. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #8064a2; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Viral subunit vaccines</span><span style="color: #8064a2; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #8064a2; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">6. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #8064a2; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Vaccines produced by genetic manipulation and</span><span style="color: #8064a2; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "imprint mt shadow"; font-size: 22.0000pt;">Now let’s read details to know about the characteristics and other features of vaccines.</span><span style="font-family: "imprint mt shadow"; font-size: 22.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 22.0000pt; font-weight: bold;">1. </span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 22pt;">Live vaccine:</span></b><span style="color: #8064a2; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> A vaccine prepared from living attenuated organisms or from viruses that have been attenuated but can still replicate the cells of the host organism. They multiply in the human host and provide continuous antigenic stimulation of the host organism. For example: Small pox, Measles Mumps and Rubella vaccine.</span><span style="color: #8064a2; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "imprint mt shadow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">However it is important to know about safety and other factors of these vaccines. </span><span style="font-family: "imprint mt shadow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "imprint mt shadow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Here the common problems of this vaccine include are: </span><span style="font-family: "imprint mt shadow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #8064a2; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">a. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #8064a2; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Under attenuation </span><span style="color: #8064a2; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #8064a2; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">b. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #8064a2; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Mutation leading to reversion to virulence </span><span style="color: #8064a2; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #8064a2; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">c. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #8064a2; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Preparation instability </span><span style="color: #8064a2; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #8064a2; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">d. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #8064a2; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Preparation instability </span><span style="color: #8064a2; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #8064a2; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">e. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #8064a2; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Contaminating viruses in cultured cells </span><span style="color: #8064a2; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #8064a2; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">f. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #8064a2; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Heat stability</span><span style="color: #8064a2; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;">Advantages of live vaccine: </span></b><b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">1. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Live vaccine can provide strong and long immune response as they are similar to natural germ.</span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">2. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Due to strong immune response triggered by live vaccines, fewer doses of the vaccines are not usually required.</span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">3. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Live vaccines are safe in the majority of healthy children and usually do not cause illness.</span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;">Disadvantages of live vaccine: </span></b><b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">1. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Live vaccines must be kept cold, which can make transport vaccines difficult; especially in remote communities </span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">2. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Live vaccines cannot be administered to immune-compromised people due to risk of serious illness.</span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">3. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Even though there is careful selection of viral and bacterial strains used in live vaccinations, there is still some risk of reversion to a more strong strain virulent of the germ.</span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 22.0000pt; font-weight: bold;">a. </span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 22pt;">Killed Vaccine:</span></b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Killed vaccines are suspensions of bacteria or viruses by disinfectants such as phenol or formaldehyde.</span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">A vaccine prepared from dead microorganisms, generally used to provide immunization from organisms that are too virulent to be used to provide in the living attenuated state. For example: Polio, Hepatitis A and B, Tetanus, Diphtheria vaccines etc.</span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;">Advantages of killed vaccine:</span></b><b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">1. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">They cannot infect the body with the relevant diseases. As inactivated or killed vaccines do not contain live germs, they carry no risk of reversion.</span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">2. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">They can be given to immune-compromised hosts. As inactivated vaccines can’t attack any part of the body they are safe for people with immunity issues.</span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">3. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">They are easy to transport and store as they can be freeze dried and still remain effective.</span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;">Disadvantages of killed vaccine:</span></b><b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">1. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Some inactivated or killed vaccines are less effective in providing immune protection than the live version.</span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">2. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">It can be costly to inactivate or kill some germ components.</span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">..</span><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;">3.</span></b><b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;">Toxoid vaccine: </span></b><b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Toxoid vaccines are preparation derived from the toxins that are secreted by certain species of bacteria. </span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">In manufacture of this vaccines the toxoid is separated from the bacteria cross infection. The most faithful approach is through the training and education of patients and hospital staff, pharmaceutical staff, so that medicine is used in their intended purpose. </span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">For example: Diphtheria and tetanus vaccines</span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">.</span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">. </span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;">4. Bacterial cell component vaccines:</span></b><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> Several bacterial vaccines are now available that consists of whole bacterial cell, as in conventional “Whopping cough” vaccines but if selected components of bacterial cell.</span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;">5. Viral subunit vaccine:</span></b><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> Originally non-replicated vaccines are derived from crude preparation of virus from animal tissues. Viral subunit vaccines like influenza vaccine, consisting of the two subunits of influenza virus known as the Haemagglutin and Neuraminidase.</span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">.</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;">6. Vaccine prepared by manipulation: </span></b><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">The technique of genetic manipulation has been applied to vaccine manufacture in various ways. In the case of viral vaccine it has been possible to transfer the gene possible for the production of the Hepatitis B surface antigen, HBs Ag to yeast cell expression of the gene in amount sufficient for vaccine.</span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Synthetic peptides:</span></b><b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Synthetic peptides are the vaccine which is modern time known as the new researched vaccine. Though the name of the vaccines is like a amino acid stucture but it also a good type of vaccine,</span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Synthetic peptides: These are potential vaccines now that the amino acid sequences and structure of some proteins immunogens have been resolved. For example: tetanus toxoid to increase their immun</span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">e</span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">genicity.</span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;">Advantages of synthetic dyes: </span></b><b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">1. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Production and Quality control is simpler.</span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">2. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">No external protein, therefore less toxic. </span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">3. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Safer in cases where viruses are oncogenic or establish a persistent infection.</span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">4. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Feasible even if virus cannot be cultivated.</span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;">Disadvantages of synthetic peptides: </span></b><b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 20pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">1. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">May be less immunogenic than the conventional inactivated whole virus vaccines.</span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">2. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Requires adjuvant.</span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">3. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Requires primary course if infections followed by boosters.</span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 24pt;">Antigen:</span></b><b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 24pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 24pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">An antigen is simply any substance foreign to the immune system that causes an immune response, such as specific antibody production, when it has been brought into close contact with the tissues of any animal that is sensitive to it, and can combine with the specific antibodies that is formed.</span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">A good antigen shows the following features: </span></b><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">A. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Inter</span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">-</span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">molecular areas of stable structure and complex bonding</span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">B. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Large stretches which are not composed of long repeating units.</span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">C. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">A molecular weight of at least 8000 to 10000 Da.</span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">D. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Can undergo processing by the immune system.</span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">E. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Have regions that can be presented antibody-forming process to stimulate the immune system.</span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">F. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Has structural dissimilarity with the host. </span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">G. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Peptide antigens should contain Immun</span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">e-</span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">genic response with at least 30% of amino acids such as lysine, glutamine, arginine, glutamic acid, aspargine, aspartic acid, called immunogenic amino acids, as well as sufficiently high numbers of hydrophilic acid or charges functional groups.</span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">H. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">An antigen reacts with antibodies mainly in an observable way.</span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">I. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">By chemical nature, pure Poly-saccharides and Lipo-poly-saccarides are good antigens.</span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">J. </span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Antigens must have foreignness character. </span><span style="color: #1f497d; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Student's Problem Solutionhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10021512785718110303noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4095389040052817844.post-320662749292621862019-06-07T21:32:00.000-07:002019-06-09T03:21:55.447-07:00Taxonomical Classification of Crude Drug<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: #00ccff; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 30pt;">C</span></b><span style="color: #00ccff; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">rude drugs</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> are</span><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span></b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">any natural occurring, unrefined substance derived from </span><i><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">organic or inorganic</span></i><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> sources such as plant, animal bacteria, organs or whole organisms intended for use in the </span><i><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment, prevention of disease</span></i><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> in man or other animals .</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); color: #00ccff; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 30pt;">C</span></b><b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); color: #00ccff; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">rude drug</span></b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> generally applies to the products from plant & animal origin found in a raw form. The term also applied to include pharmaceutical products from </span><i><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">mineral kingdom</span></i><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> in original form and not necessary only of organic origin such as kaolin, bentonite etc</span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">To follow the study of the individual </span><b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">drugs</span></b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">, one must adopt some particular sequence of arrangement and this is referred to a system of </span><i><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">classification</span></i><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> of </span><b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">drugs</span></b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">.</span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">A method of </span><i><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">classification</span></i><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> should be simple and easy to use, and free from confusion & ambiguities .</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Because of their wide distribution, each arrangement of </span><i><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">classification</span></i><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> has its own merits and demerits, but for the purpose of study the </span><b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">drugs</span></b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> are </span><i><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">classified</span></i><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> in the following different ways :</span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #ffc000; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;">Classification of Crude Drugs:</span></b><b><span style="color: #ffc000; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></h3>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14.0000pt; font-weight: bold;">1. </span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Alphabetical </span></b><b><i><span style="color: #993366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">classification:</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> In this system the </span><span style="color: #00ccff; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">crude drugs</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> are arranged in alphabetical order. </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Examples: Acacia, Benzoin, Cinchona, Dill, Ergot, Fennel, Gentian, Hyoscyamus, Ipecacuanha, Jalap, Kurchi, Liquorice, Mints, Nuxvomica, Opium, Podophyllum, Quassia, Rauwolfia, Senna, Vasaka, Wool fat, Yellow bees wax, Zeodary.</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14.0000pt; font-weight: bold;">2. </span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Morphological </span></b><b><i><span style="color: #993366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">classification:</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> In this system the </span><span style="color: #00ccff; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">crude drugs</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> are classified according to their morphological characters like leaves, barks, seeds, fruits, roots, flowers etc.,</span><span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Here,</span><b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); color: #00ccff; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">crude drugs</span></b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> are grouped into organized </span><b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">drug</span></b><b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span></b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">(parts of plant like root, rhizome, flower, leaf, fruit, bark, seed, wood etc) and unorganized </span><b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">drug</span></b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> (dried lattices, dried juice, gum, wax, oil etc).</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Example: Leaves- (Senna, digitalis, vasaka, eucalyptus), Barks- (Cinchona, kurchi, cinnamon, quaillia), Woods- (Quassia, sandal-wood) etc.</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14.0000pt; font-weight: bold;">3. </span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Chemical </span></b><b><i><span style="color: #993366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">classification:</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> This </span><i><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">classification</span></i><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> gives logical reasoning to biological activities of </span><span style="color: #00ccff; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">crude drugs.</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">It is purely based on chemistry of major active constituents.</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14.0000pt; font-weight: bold;">4. </span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Chemo-taxonomic </span></b><b><i><span style="color: #993366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">classification:</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> The chemical examinations of several plants photochemical evaluation have established that there is close link between their chemical constituents and </span><b><u><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">taxonomical</span></u></b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> status.</span><span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">This </span><i><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">classification</span></i><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> establishes relation between chemistry and </span><b><u><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">taxonomy</span></u></b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> by exact choice of group, sound sampling, and analysis of chemical content, interpretation and comparison.</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Example: Solanaceae family contains Tropane alkaloids, Umbelliferae family contains Volatile oil, Pinaceae family contains Oleo-resin.</span><span style="font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14.0000pt; font-weight: bold;">5. </span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Pharmacological or biological </span></b><b><i><span style="color: #993366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">classification:</span></i></b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> The</span><i><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> classification</span></i><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> shows that a quick review therapeutic effects or pharmacological activity of </span><span style="color: #00ccff; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">crude drugs</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span><span style="color: #00ccff; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Crude drugs</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> are arranged according to taxonomic order </span><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">i.e., phylum, division, class, sub-class, orders, families, genus and species.</span></b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14.0000pt; font-weight: bold;">6. </span><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Taxonomical </span></b><b><i><span style="color: #993366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">classification:</span></i></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span></b><b><u><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Taxonomical classification</span></u></b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> is based on principles of natural relationship & evolutionary developments. </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">It is Purely </span><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Botanical classification</span></b><i><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">.</span></i><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> This method of </span><i><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">classification</span></i><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> is based on the consideration of natural relationship or phylogeny among plant and animal. </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">They are grouped in (Kingdom, Phylum, Order, Family, and Genus & Species). Sometimes not all the entire plants are used as drug but only parts of plant are used as a drug, e.g. Cinnamon bark so in this case it has no significance from identification point of view to put these plants in a </span><b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">taxonomic</span></b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> order.</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #ff9900; font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 14.0000pt;">For Example: </span><span style="color: #ff9900; font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 14.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Phylum - Spermatophyta </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Division - Angiospermae </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Class - Dicotyledons </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Sub-class - Sympetalae </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Order - Tubiflorae </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Family - Solanaceae </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">Genus – Atropa Species – belladonna</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #ff9900; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 20.0000pt;">Another example: </span><span style="color: #ff9900; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 20.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Division </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Angiospermae</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Class </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Dicotyledoneae</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Subclass </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Sympetalae</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Order </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Tubiflorae</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Suborder </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Verbenineae</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Family </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Labiatae (Lamiaceae)</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Subfamily </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Stachydoideae</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Tribe </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Satureieae</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Genus </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Mentha</span></i><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Species </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Mentha piperita </span></i><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Linnaeus (Peppermint)</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Varieties </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Mentha piperita </span></i><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">var. </span><i><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">officinalis </span></i><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Sole (White Peppermint),</span><i><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> Mentha piperita </span></i><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">var. </span><i><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">vulgaris </span></i><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Sole (Black Peppermint</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span style="color: #993366; font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 13.5pt;">[Here we shall only discuss about </span></i><i><u><span style="color: #993366; font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 13.5pt;">Taxonomical Classification</span></u></i><i><span style="color: #993366; font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 13.5pt;">]</span></i><i><span style="color: #993366; font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 13.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); color: #993366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Taxonomy</span></b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); color: #993366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">,</span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> in a broad sense the science of </span><i><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">classification,</span></i><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> but more strictly the </span><i><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">classification</span></i><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> of living and extinct organisms—i.e., biological </span><i><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">classification.</span></i><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">The term is derived from the Greek taxis (“arrangement”) and nomos (“law”). </span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); color: #993366; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Taxonomy</span></b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> is, therefore, the </span><i><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">methodology and principles</span></i><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> of systematic botany and zoology and sets up arrangements of the kinds of plants and animals in </span><i><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">hierarchies of superior and subordinate</span></i><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> groups.</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">The </span></b><b><u><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">taxonomic classification</span></u></b><b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> system</span></b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> (also called the </span><b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Linnaean system</span></b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> after its inventor, Carl Linnaeus, a Swedish botanist, zoologist, and physician) uses a hierarchical model. Moving from the point of origin, the groups become more specific, until one branch ends as a single species. </span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">For example, after the common beginning of all life, scientists divide organisms into three large categories called a domain: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. Within each domain is a second category, called a kingdom. After kingdoms, the subsequent categories of increasing specificity are: </span><i><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species.</span></i><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">In </span><b><u><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">taxonomical classification</span></u></b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); color: #00ccff; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">crude drugs</span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> are arranged</span><span class="15" style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">according to </span><b><u><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">taxonomic</span></u></b><span class="15" style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">order i.e., </span><b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">phylum,</span></b><b><span class="15" style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">division, class, sub-class,</span></b><b><span class="15" style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">orders, families, genus</span></b><b><span class="15" style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span></b><b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">and species. </span></b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Also In this system </span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); color: #00ccff; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;">crude drugs</span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> are arranged according to the natural groups (e.g. families) of their sources.</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Thus all the </span><b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">drugs</span></b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> obtained from plants of the family. Umbelliferae are grouped together as umbelliferous </span><b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">drugs,</span></b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> those from Solanaceae are grouped together as Solanaceous </span><b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">drugs</span></b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> and so on. </span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">This system of </span><i><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">classification</span></i><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> reflects the natural relationship or phylogeny of the sources, which are also in many instances found to contain similar chemical constituents. </span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">For example</span></b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">, volatile oils are the main constituents of the Umbelliferous fruit </span><b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">drugs,</span></b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> while tropane alkaloids are characteristics of Solanaceous </span><b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">drugs.</span></b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">As all the entire plants are not used as </span><b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">drugs,</span></b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> part of the plant is used as a </span><b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">drug,</span></b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> for example, cinnamon bark. </span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Thus it is of no significance from identification</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">point of view to put plants in a </span><u><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">taxonomic</span></u><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> order. </span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Table 1 give the account of main characters of various </span><b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">taxon</span></b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> that contribute crude drugs while as Table 2 gives the </span><b><u><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">taxonomical classification</span></u></b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> of some drugs.</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="15" style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14pt;"> </span><span class="15" style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #d99594; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;">Table 1: Main Characters of Various Taxon that Contribute Crude Drugs</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></h3>
<table border="1" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-insideh: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-insidev: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-padding-alt: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; mso-table-layout-alt: fixed; width: 478.8000pt;"><tbody>
<tr><td colspan="5" style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 478.8000pt;" valign="top" width="638"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0000pt;">
<span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"> </span><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Plant kingdom </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Thallophyta</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Pteridophyta</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Gymnosperm</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 158.2000pt;" valign="top" width="210"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0000pt;">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> Angiosperm</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 106.8500pt;" valign="top" width="142"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0000pt;">
<span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">• Alage and</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">fungi are</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">consider</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">together</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">• They differ in</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">mode of</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">nutrition</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">• Alage exhibit</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">autotropic and</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">fungi exhibit</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">heterotrophic</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">nutrition.</span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Example:</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Rhodophyta</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">(Red algae)</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">This group of plant</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">derives its name</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">from the fern, Pteris</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">which also represent</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">salient features of</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">group (Pterido-</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">pteris, Phyton-</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">plant)</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">• They occur is humid</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">and tropical</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">climates and usually</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">ground on soil,</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">rocks, in ponds etc.</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">• These plant are also</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">raised in pots as</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">ornamentals</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Example: Male fern</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 109.0500pt;" valign="top" width="145"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0000pt;">
<span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">• The gymnosperm</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">(Gymnos-naked and</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">sperma-seed i.e. plant</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">with a naked seeds)</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">are comparatively</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">more ancient than the</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">angiosperm in</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">evolutionary terms</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">• The living</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">gymnosperms are</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">widely distributed in</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">the cold climates</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">• The plant body is</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">sporophyte and</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">differentiated into</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">roots, stem and</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">leaves.</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Example: Ephedra,</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Colophony</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 158.2000pt;" valign="top" width="210"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0000pt;">
<span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">• The term angiosperm means</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">enclosed seed because the</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">ovules or potential seed are</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">enclosed within a hallow</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">ovary.</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">• The angiosperms constitute</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">the most dominant and</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">ubiquitous vascular plants</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">of present day flora</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">• Dicots and monocots are its</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">sub divisions</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<tr><td colspan="3" rowspan="2" style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: none; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 320.6000pt;" valign="top" width="427"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0000pt;">
<br /></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 79.1000pt;" valign="top" width="105"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0000pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Dicot </span></i><i><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 79.1000pt;" valign="top" width="105"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0000pt;">
<i><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Monocot</span></i><i><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 79.1000pt;" valign="top" width="105"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0000pt;">
<span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">They have</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">two</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">cotyledons</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Example:</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Coriander,</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Capsicum</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 79.1000pt;" valign="top" width="105"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0000pt;">
<span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">They have</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">one</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">cotyledons</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Example:</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Vanilla, Colchicum</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0000pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0000pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0000pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0000pt;">
<span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14.0000pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h3>
<b><span style="color: #d99594; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;">Table2: Taxonomical Classification of Some Crude Drugs: </span></b><b><span style="color: #d99594; font-family: "impact"; font-size: 30pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0000pt;">
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<table border="1" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-insideh: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-insidev: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-padding-alt: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; mso-table-layout-alt: fixed; width: 447.2000pt;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 115.1000pt;" valign="top" width="153"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 16pt;"> Phylum</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 110.7000pt;" valign="top" width="147"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 16pt;"> Order</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 110.7000pt;" valign="top" width="147"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 16pt;"> Family</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 110.7000pt;" valign="top" width="147"><div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 16pt;"> Drugs</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "arial black"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<tr><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 115.1000pt;" valign="top" width="153"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Thallophyta (Bacteria,</span><span class="15" style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">fungi, Lichens)</span><span class="15" style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Rhodophyta</span><span class="15" style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 110.7000pt;" valign="top" width="147"><div class="MsoNormal">
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> Gelidiales</span></div>
</td><td style="border-bottom: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-left: none; border-right: 1.0000pt solid windowtext; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-left-alt: none; mso-border-right-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; mso-border-top-alt: 0.5000pt solid windowtext; padding: 0.0000pt 5.4000pt 0.0000pt 5.4000pt; width: 110.7000pt;" valign="top" width="147"><div class="MsoNormal">
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="15" style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><br />
<span class="15" style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Gelidiaceae</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> Agar</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Pteridophyta (Liverhorts,</span><span class="15" style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Mosses and Ferns)</span><span class="15" style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> Filicales</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> Polypodiaceae</span></div>
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<span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> Male fern</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Gymnosperms</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> Genetales</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Coniferae</span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Ephedraceae</span></div>
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<span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> Pinaceae</span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> Ephedra</span><span class="15" style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Colophony</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Angiosperms (Moncotyledons)</span><span class="15" style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> Liliflorae</span><span class="15" style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">,</span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> Microspermae</span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> Liliaceae</span><span class="15" style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Dioscoreaceae</span><span class="15" style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Orchidaceae</span><span class="15" style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> Colchicum</span><span class="15" style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Dioscorea</span><span class="15" style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Vanilla</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Angiosperms</span><span class="15" style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">(Dicotyledons)</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Papaverales</span><span class="15" style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Rosales</span><span class="15" style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> Papaveraceae</span><span class="15" style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Rosaceae</span><span class="15" style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> Leguminosae</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Opium</span><span class="15" style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Almond, Rose oil</span><span class="15" style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Balsam of Tolu</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #d99594; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 30pt;">The main feature of the taxonomical classification:</span></b><b><span style="color: #d99594; font-family: "calibri"; font-size: 30pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></h4>
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<span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14pt;">• Uses the </span><b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14pt;">botanical classification</span></b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14pt;">:</span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14pt;"> </span><b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14pt;">Drugs</span></b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14pt;"> are arranged according to the source of the plants.</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14pt;">• Thus, using; classes, orders, families, genera and species.</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14pt;">• It allows quick and precise arrangement that is devoid of ambiguities.</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14pt;"><br /></span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14pt;">• Its use is decreasing with decreasing the knowledge of the practitioners mainly </span><u><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14pt;">pharmacists.</span></u><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><u><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 13.5pt;">Taxonomical</span></u></b><u><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 13.5pt;"> classification</span></u><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 13.5pt;"> is helpful for studying evolutionary developments.</span><span class="15" style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 13.5pt;"> </span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14pt;">Though this </span><i><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14pt;">classification</span></i><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14pt;"> is easy for study but it has some bad issues. This system is criticized for its failure to recognized/unrecognized nature of </span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); color: #00ccff; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14.0000pt;">crude drugs</span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14pt;"> in their morphological studies. Again, the system fails to face into an account chemical nature of active constituent and therapeutic significance of </span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); color: #00ccff; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14.0000pt;">crude drugs.</span><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); color: #00ccff; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14.0000pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14pt;">Finally, the </span><b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); color: #333399; font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14pt;">drugs</span></b><span style="background: rgb(255 , 255 , 255); font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 14pt;"> obtained from plants having alternate leaves, flowers, seeds, capsules (Hyocyamus, Datura, Belladonna, Stramonium) are considered with other members of Solanaceae.</span><span style="font-family: "arial narrow"; font-size: 13.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Student's Problem Solutionhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10021512785718110303noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4095389040052817844.post-34829782761079409502019-06-07T21:18:00.000-07:002019-06-09T03:28:25.397-07:00Importance of Microbiology<div class="MsoNormal">
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">Microbiology is the branch of medical sciences which deals about the microorganisms that living in our environment or inside our body and causes diseases; it is also discuss about the prevention and cure of various diseases. </span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">However the importance of microbiology is very important to know about the significance of microbiology.</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><b>The importance of microbiology is discussed below shortly.</b></span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: Impact; font-size: 28pt;">The Micro-organisms; inside the human body.</span></b><b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: Impact; font-size: 28pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></h2>
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<span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">We have, living on and in our bodies (</span><span class="15" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">e.g., </span><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">on our skin and in our mouths</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><br /></span><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">and intestinal tract), approximately 10 times as many microorganisms as</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><br /></span><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">the total number of cells (</span><span class="15" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">i.e., </span><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">epithelial cells, nerve cells, muscle cells,</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><br /></span><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">etc.) that make up our bodies (10 trillion cells 10,100 trillion microbes). It has been estimated that perhaps as many as 500 to 1000 different species of micro-organisms live on and in us. </span><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Collectively, these </span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">microbes are known as our </span><b><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">indigenous micro-flora</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> (or </span><i><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">indigenous micro-biota</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">) and, for the most part, they are beneficial to us. </span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">For example</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">, the indigenous micro-flora inhibit the growth of pathogens in those areas of the body where they live by </span><b><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">occupying space</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">, </span><b><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">depleting the food supply</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">, and </span><b><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">secreting materials</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> (waste products, toxins, antibiotics, etc.)That may prevent or reduce the growth of pathogens.</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">Some of the organisms that colonize (inhabit) our bodies are known as</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><br /></span><b><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">opportunistic pathogens</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> (or </span><i><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">opportunists</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">). Although such organisms do not usually cause us any problems, they have the potential to cause infections if they gain access to a part of our anatomy where they do not</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><br /></span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">belong.</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">For example</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">, a bacterium called Escherichia coli (E. coli) lives</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><br /></span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">in our intestinal tracts. This organism does not cause us any harm as</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><br /></span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">long as it stays in our intestinal tract but can cause disease if it gains access to our urinary bladder, </span><b><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">bloodstream</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">, or a </span><b><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">wound</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">. Other opportunistic pathogens strike when a person becomes run down, stressed out, or debilitated (weakened) as a result of some disease or condition. </span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">*Opportunistic pathogens can be thought of as micro-organisms awaiting the opportunity to cause disease*.</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: Impact; font-size: 28pt;">Effects of microorganism in environment.</span></b><b><span style="color: #f79646; font-family: Impact; font-size: 28pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></h2>
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<span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Micro-organisms are essential for life on this planet as we know it.</span><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">For</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> </span></b><b><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">example,</span></b><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> some microbes produce oxygen by the process known as </span><b><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">photosynthesis</span></b><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">. Actually, micro-organisms contribute more oxygen to our atmosphere than do plants. </span><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">Many micro-organisms are involved in the </span><b><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">decomposition </span></b><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">of dead organisms and the waste products of living organisms. Collectively, they are referred to as decomposers or </span><b><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">saprophytes</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">. </span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">By definition, a saprophyte is an organism that lives on dead and/or </span><i><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">decaying</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> organic matter.</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><br /></span><span style="color: #993300; font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 18pt;">#Imagine, living in a world with no decomposers. Not a pleasant thought!</span></b><b><span style="color: #993300; font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 18pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="color: #ff6600; font-family: Impact; font-size: 24.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">Micro-organisms acts as decomposers</span><span style="color: #ff6600; font-family: Impact; font-size: 24.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><br /></span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">Saprophytes aid in fertilization by </span><b><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">returning</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> inorganic nutrients to the soil. They break down dead and dying organic materials (plants and animals) into nitrates, phosphates, and other chemicals necessary for the growth of plants</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">Some micro-organisms are capable of </span><b><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">decomposing</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> industrial wastes (oil-spills, for example). </span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">Thus, we can use micro-organisms genetically engineered microbes, in some cases to </span><i><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">clean-up</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> after ourselves. The use of micro-organisms in this manner is called bioremediation.</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Many micro-organisms are involved in elemental cycles (</span><span class="15" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">e.g., </span><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">carbon,</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> </span><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and phosphorous cycles). In the nitrogen cycle, certain bacteria convert nitrogen gas in the air to ammonia in the</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> </span><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">soil. </span><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="16" style="color: #ff6600; font-family: Impact; font-size: 24pt;">Microbes act as good chemical changer </span><span class="16" style="color: #ff6600; font-family: Impact; font-size: 24pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Certain soil bacteria then convert the ammonia to nitrites. Still other bacteria convert the nitrogen in nitrates to nitrogen</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> </span><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">gas, thus completing the cycle (IMAGE). </span><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Knowledge of these microbes </span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">is important to farmers who practice </span><i><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">crop r</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">otation to </span><b><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">replenish</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> nutrients in their fields and to gardeners who keep compost </span><i><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">pits as a source</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> of natural fertilizer. </span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">In both cases, dead organic material is broken down into inorganic nutrients (e.g. nitrates and phosphates) by micro-organisms. </span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">*The study of the relationships between microbes and the environment is called </span><b><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">M</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">icrobial-Ecology.</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #ff6600; font-family: Impact; font-size: 24.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">Important factor of micro-organisms: Effect on food chain</span><span style="color: #ff6600; font-family: Impact; font-size: 24.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">Algae and bacteria serve as food for tiny animals. Then, larger animals eat the smaller creatures, and so on. Thus, microbes serve as important links in food chains (IMAGE). Microscopic organisms in the ocean collectively referred to as plankton, serve as the starting point of many food chains. </span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">Tiny marine plants and algae are called </span><b><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">phytoplankton</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">, whereas tiny marine animals are called </span><b><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">zooplankton</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">. </span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #ff6600; font-family: Impact; font-size: 24.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">Researches on micro-organism: </span><span style="color: #ff6600; font-family: Impact; font-size: 24.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #ff6600; font-family: Impact; font-size: 24.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">Bio-technology and Genetic-Engineering. </span><span style="color: #ff6600; font-family: Impact; font-size: 24.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">Many micro-organisms are essential in various food and beverage industries, while others are used to produce certain </span><i><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">enzymes</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> and </span><i><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">chemicals</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">.</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><br /></span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">The use of microorganisms in industry is called biotechnology. </span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">Certain bacteria and fungi produce antibiotics that are used to treat patients with infectious diseases. </span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">By definition, an antibiotic is a substance produced by a microorganism that is effective in killing or inhibiting the growth of other microorganisms. </span></i><i><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">*The use of microbes in the antibiotic industry is another example of </span><b><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Biotechnology</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">*. </span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">Microbes are essential in the field of </span><b><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Genetic Engineering</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">. In </span><b><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Genetic Engineering</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">, a gene from one organism (e.g., from a bacterium, a human, an animal, or a plant) is inserted into a bacterial or yeast cell.</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">Because a gene contains the instructions for the production of a gene product (</span><i><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">usually a protein</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">), the cell that receives the new gene can now produce </span><i><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">whatever product is coded</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> for by that gene; so too can all of the cells that arise from the original cell. </span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">Bacteria and yeasts have been engineered to produce a variety of useful substances, such as </span><b><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">insulin</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">, various types of </span><b><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">growth hormone</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">, </span><b><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">interferon</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">, and materials for use as </span><b><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">vaccines</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">.</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #ff6600; font-family: Impact; font-size: 24.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">Microbes used as cell models:</span><span style="color: #ff6600; font-family: Impact; font-size: 24.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><br /></span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">For many years, microbes have been used as “</span><span style="font-family: Impact; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">cell models</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">.” The more, scientists learned about the structure and functions of microbial cells, the more they learned about cells in general. </span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">*The intestinal bacterium E. coli is one of the most studied of all microbes.* </span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">By studying E. coli, scientists have learned a great deal about the composition and inner workings of cells, including human cells.</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><br /></span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: #ff6600; font-family: Impact; font-size: 24.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">A big number of diseases caused by micro-organisms</span><span style="color: #ff6600; font-family: Impact; font-size: 24.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">Finally, we come to </span><b><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">diseases</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">. Micro-organisms cause </span><i><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">two categories of</span></i><i><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span></i><i><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">diseases</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">: </span><b><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">infectious</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> </span><b><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">diseases</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> and </span><b><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">microbial intoxications</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> (Fig. 1–6). An infectious disease results when a pathogen </span><i><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">colonizes</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> the body and subsequently causes disease.</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';">A microbial intoxication results when a person </span><i><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">ingests a toxin</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> (poisonous substance) that has been produced by a micro-organism. Of the two categories, infectious diseases cause far more illnesses and deaths. Infectious diseases are the </span><i><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">leading cause</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> of death in the world and the </span><i><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">third leading cause of death</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> in the </span><b><span style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">United </span></b><b><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">States</span></b><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> (after </span><i><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">heart disease</span></i><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> and </span><i><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">cancer</span></i><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">). </span><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Worldwide, infectious diseases</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> </span><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">cause about 50,000 deaths per day; the majority of deaths occur in </span><i><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">developing countries</span></i><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">. </span><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="16" style="color: navy; font-family: "Arial Black"; font-size: 22pt;">How to protect human from infectious pathogens</span><span class="16" style="color: navy; font-family: "Arial Black"; font-size: 22pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Anyone pursuing a career in a healthcare profession</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> </span><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">must be aware of infectious diseases, the pathogens that cause them, the</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> </span><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">sources of the pathogens, how these diseases are transmitted, and how</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> </span><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">to protect oneself and your patients from these diseases. </span><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Physicians’ assistants, nurses, dental assistants, laboratory technologists, respiratory</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> </span><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">therapists, orderlies, nurses’ aides, and all others who are associated</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> </span><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">with patients and patient care must take precautions to prevent the</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> </span><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">spread of pathogens. </span><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">Harmful micro-organisms may be transferred from</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> </span><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">health workers to patients; from patient to patient; from contaminated</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> </span><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">mechanical devices, instruments, and syringes to patients; from </span><b><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">contaminated bedding</span></b><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">, </span><b><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">clothes</span></b><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">, </span><b><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">dishes</span></b><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">, and </span><b><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">food</span></b><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> to patients; and from patients</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> </span><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">to healthcare workers, hospital visitors, and other susceptible persons.</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><br /></span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">To limit</span></i><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> the spread of pathogens, sterile, aseptic, and antiseptic techniques are used everywhere in hospitals, nursing homes, operating rooms, and laboratories.</span><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">In addition, the </span><b><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">bioterrorist activities</span></b><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;"> of the past few years serve to remind us that everyone</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> </span><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">should have an understanding of the agents (pathogens) that are involved</span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"> </span><span class="16" style="font-family: "Arial Narrow"; font-size: 16pt;">and how to protect ourselves from becoming infected. </span><span style="font-family: 'Arial Narrow'; font-size: 16.0000pt; mso-spacerun: 'yes';"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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